



iiN^i«^i^S;i>ii^\^>^i^^\^s^\\\\\^^^^ 




Class Sfji^a. 

Book MXX.- 

Copyiight N° 



COPYRIGHT DEPOSrr 




Babcock Flask, Showing Fat in Neck (after Harrington) 
{Frontispiece) 



THE 



PRODUCTION AND HANDLING 



OF 



CLEAN MILK 



BY 



KENELM WINSLOW, M.D.; M.D.V.; B.A.S. {Harv?^ 

Formerly Instructor in Bussey Agricultural Itistitute and Assistant 

Professor in the Veterinary School of Harvard Utiiversity. 

Author of a textbook on Veterinary Materia Medica 

and Therapeutics, Chairman of the Committee 

on Milk . of the Washington State 

Medical Association^ etc. 




New York 

WII.I.IAM R. JENKINS CO. 

PUBLISHERS 

851-853 Sixth Avenue 



fuBRAaY of CONSStSSj 
Two Copies KecetveO 

DEC 12 ;90f 

Ooyyneiii tntry 
^^zlc (2- /f 7 

CLi^SS'^ _XXc, Kj. 

COPY B. 



Copyright, 1907 

By W11.1.1AM R. Jenkins Co. 

All rights reserved 



^Registered at Stationers' Hall, London] 
Printed in the United States of America 



printed by the 

Press of Wiluam R. Jenkins Co. 

New York 



PREFACE 



The writer is a graduate in agricultural science, in veter- 
inary and human medicine, and has been connected with a 
laboratory in which is examined the milk supply of a large 
city, and finally has had considerable practical experience in 
the production and distribution of clean milk. 

These facts are simply mentioned to show that the 
book is written from various points of view. 

Much blame is attached to sundry persons engaged in 
vending milk, but the unfortunate farmer is apt to receive 
an unjust share because of the commonly unclean and there- 
fore unsanitary condition of most market milk. While city 
contractors and dealers may have much influence in 
instructing and requiring the farmer to live up to recognized 
standards of cleanliness, yet, after all, the chief responsibility 
lies with the consumer. The essential object in the clean 
milk crusade should be to awaken the public to the dangers 
of unclean milk and to emphasize the fact that it is impos- 
sible to produce and obtain clean milk except at unusual 
expense. 

When the public is sufficiently aroused to the evils of 
consuming unclean milk and evinces willingness to pay for 
clean milk, there will be no difficulty about its production. 
It is merely a question of supply and demand. 



PREFACE 

It is not generally known that the farmer sometimes 
receives but one-quarter of the retail price of milk (frequently 
but 2 cents a quart), and he can hardly be expected to 
undertake a considerably increased expenditure for the 
production of clean milk — this being the case. 

There is probably more interest being shown in this 
and other countries in a pure milk supply than ever before. 
For this reason it should be a comparatively easy task for 
any individual desiring to produce clean milk in any con- 
siderable community to find a sufficient patronage, particu- 
larly if the local medical profession is asked to assist, 
always providing that the proper standard is constantly and 
conscientiously maintained. The idea of financial return 
must be subordinated to this, and yet a reasonable profit 
can and must be had to sustain the required standard. 

The aim of this book is to provide a working guide for 
those pursuing or wishing to pursue one of the most whole- 
some, worthy and laudable undertakings — the production 
of clean milk. 

Most of the books at our command either touch the 
subject in a general manner or else describe special phases 
of it in detail. The attempt has here been made to cover 
the whole ground in as small compass as possible. That 
such an attempt must fall short the author is aware, as the 
topic of feeding cows alone (accorded but a chapter in this 
book) can only be fully treated in a large volume devoted 
wholly to this subject. 

Objection may be made to the recommendation of 
particular apparatus of certain manufacturers. But the 



PREFACE 

writer has been so desirous of making the book practical 
that it has been deemed essential to choose special appliances 
in order to avoid generalities and vagueness. 

While endeavoring to select the best, it does not follow 
that other appliances are not as good, or even better than 
those advised ; but the author can truthfully affirm that 
both he and his publisher are entirely free from the remotest 
financial interest in advertising any special dairy appliances. 
Such appliances are undergoing the most wonderful and 
rapid improvement, almost from day to day. 

Kenelm Winslow, 



CONTENTS 



CHAP. PAGE 

I. Germs in their General Relation to Milk . . i 
II. Composition of Milk and Cream and Their Pro- 
ducts 23 

III. Milk Products 33 

IV. Feeding for Milk 46 

V. Housing and Care op Cows 57 

VI. Handling of Milk and Cream 71 

VII. Cost of Producing and Distributing Clean Milk i 10 

VIII. Some Hints Concerning Milk Distribution . . 125 

IX. Milk Inspection 134 

Appendix — Plans of Barns, Milk Houses, etc 169 

General Outline of a Scheme for the Control, Super- 
vision and Inspection of a City Milk Supply . . 198 
Index 203 



LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS 



Frontispiece 



Fig 
I 
2 



General Shape of Bacteria . 

The Constituent Elements of Milk — Fat, Serum, Casein 
Sketch A — Two methods of ventilating a Dairy Farm 
Sketch B — Method of ventilating a Lean-to Stable 
Sketch C — Section of the Cow Stable of the Dairy Barn at 
the Wisconsin Experiment Station 

3 Iron Milking Stool 
3A The Gurler Milk Pail . 

3B A Recent Improvement on the Gurler Milk Pail 
3c Modification of Stewart's Milk Pail 

4 The Conical Cooler 

5 Star Cooler ..... 

6 Tubular Cooler .... 

7 Star Cooler ..... 

8 Star Cooler 

9 Star Cooler ..... 

10 Trap Milk Strainer 

1 1 Wash Sink ..... 

12 Various Forms of Brushes . 

13 Milk-Can Jacket .... 

14 Star Side-Bar Filler 

15 Star High- Pressure Cylinder 

16 Star Sterilizer .... 

17 Bottle Brush .... 

18 Star Metal Wash Sink 

19 Star Bottle- Washing Outfit . 

20 Steam Heating Tee 



Page 

4 
24 
62 
63 

64 
72 
73 
73 
74 
79 
80 
80 
81 
■82 

83 
84 
86 

87 
88 

89 
90 
92 
93 
94 
95 
95 



LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS 



Fig. 

21 Glass Dairy Thermometer ...... 

2 2 Machine for Chopping Ice used to pack about milk bottles 

23 Banjo Conductor for carrying milk through a wall 

24 Cylinder for conveying milk through a floor 

25 Cream Cooler connected with Separator 

26 Cream Bottle Filler 

27 Bottle Carriers ........ 

28 Car for conveying Carriers and Bottles 

29 Car for conveying Carriers and Bottles 

30 Wagon Box for carrying bottles on ice ... 

31 Star Milk Bottles 

32 Hand Separator for separating cream from milk . 

33 Milk Wagon ........ 

34 Milk Wagon ........ 

35 Delivery Basket ........ 

36 Small Babcock Machine, with other necessary paraphernalia 

37 Eight-Bottle Babcock Machine ..... 

38 Power Babcock Machine ...... 

39 Pipette for making the Babcock test .... 

40 Shows method of introducing milk into Babcock bottle with 

pipette in making the fat test .... 

41 I cc. Pipettes enclosed in tubes for sterilizing 

42 Flasks and Vials for quantitative bacteriological analysis 

43 Two Burettes arranged for neutralizing culture media . 

44 Petri Dishes . . . " . 

45 Sketch showing ground plan of milk house owned by J. D 

Farrell, Esq. ....... 

46 Rough sketch of ground plan of barn for forty cows (W. H 

Paulhamus, Esq.) ...... 

47 Rough .sketch of ground plan of milk house (W. H. Paul- 

hamus, Esq.) ........ 



Page 
96 

97 
98 

99 
100 

lOI 

102 
103 
104 

105 
106 
107 
126 
127 
128 
142 
143 
143 
144 

145 
149 

150 

152 

153 

179 
181 
183 



LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS 



PLATES 

I Yeksa Sunbeam (Guernsey) 

II Shadybrook Gerben (Holstein) 

III Pansy of Woodroffe (Ayrshire) 

IV Loretta D. (Jersey) . 
V Stable (J. D. Farrell, Esq.) 

VI Stable (J. D. Farrell, Esq.) 

VII Wash Room (J. D. Farrell, Esq.) 

VIII Milk Room (J. D. Farrell, Esq.) 

IX Interior of the Paulhamus Barn . 

X Bottle-washing Machine at the Paulhamus Farm 

XI Concrete and Cement Sterilizer, " 

XII The Improved " Drown " Stall . 

XIII The Burrell-Iyawrence-Kennedy Cow Milker 

XIV The Pulsator 

XV Illustrating the Hegelund method of milking 

D Dipper and Siphon for removing cream and milk 

respectively ..',.,.. 

T Colonies or collections of germs . . . . 



follows 



Page 
170 
170 
172 
172 
178 
180 
180 
180 
180 
182 
184 
186 
188 
188 
192 

132 
156 



CHAPTER I 



GERMS IN THEIR GENERAL RELATIONS 

TO MILK 



THE object of this book is to show the importance — 
nay, even necessity — of a clean milk production, and 
the practical methods by which it may be obtained. 
Heretofore milk has been regarded much in the same light 
as other articles of food, but It differs from them in many 
important respects. It is the only animal food which is 
commonly eaten in the raw state, and it forms the sole diet 
for human beings at an immature age, when they are least 
able to cope with the disorders which contaminated and 
dirty milk is liable to produce. Again — and this is the chief 
reason why milk needs especial care in its production — it 
always contains more or less germs, and, indeed, forms one 
of the most favorable foods on which germs grow. 

The common idea of germs appears to be that they are 
chiefly important in being the. cause of disease, and while 
some germs do produce disease — and occasionally those 
inhabiting milk which has not been properly cared for — yet 
they mainly interest the farmer on account of their powerful 
and enormous influence upon milk and its products. The 
chief aim of this book is to enforce on the farrner and dairy- 
man this one fact, that the One Essential in producing and 
handling milk is Cleanliness, and cleanliness means in this 
connection freedom from germs, so far as this is possible. 



2 CLEAN MILK 

It would scarce be an exaggeration to say that all the trouble 
which arises in the endeavor to secure good milk or milk- 
products results from the contamination of milk with unde- 
sirable germs. Thus the proper taste, odor, color, consis- 
tency and keeping qualities of milk depend upon its 
comparative freedom from undesirable germs. Conversely, 
the souring of milk and faults in odor, color, consistency 
and taste depend almost wholly upon the presence of one 
or more varieties of germs. 

Moreover, the prevention of contamination of milk 
with miscellaneous germs is just as important in order to 
make the best products from milk, as it is to avoid disease 
in man. Thus the finest cream is only produced from milk 
in which germs are comparatively absent. Cream laden 
with miscellaneous germs has bad keeping qualities and 
often a faulty taste or odor. Most of the so-called faults of 
butter arise not from improper feeding of cows or from 
improper making or handling of butter, but from undesir- 
able germs which infest it. Among some of the more com- 
mon faults of butter are poor flavor, tallowy or oily butter, 
butter having a bitter, rotten or root-taste like turnips, 
rancid, mottled and moldy butter, and butter of unusual 
colors ; all of these faults have been proved to be due to 
the contamination of butter with germs which existed in the 
milk. 

While germs in milk produce changes in cheese which 
give rise to its proper consistency and flavor, yet it is only 
a certain type or types of germs which are desirable, and a 
general pollution of milk with germs of many kinds may 
wholly unfit milk for cheese making. 

It is essential that milk should be pure when employed 
for condensing, and, although germs are destroyed in the 



GERMS IN RELATION TO MILK 3 

process, this is much more readily accomplished if the milk 
is clean in the beginning and the keeping qualities will be 
much better. Above all, when milk is sold for general con- 
sumption it must be pure — comparatively germ-free — to be 
wholesome, to bring a good price, to keep, and to fall 
within the legal requirements which will soon become gen- 
eral throughout this country. 

Heretofore, when milk was regarded in the same litrht 
as any other food, the law required simply that it should 
not be adulterated and that it should contain a quantity of 
food-constituents equivalent to the minimum standard in 
force. Now, however, it has come to be realized that of 
the two the cleanliness of the milk is an hundredfold more 
important than its food value. While a milk poor in fat 
may mean a certain loss of nutriment to one using it, the 
contamination of milk with certain germs may be a matter 
of life and death to the consumer — particularly if an infant. 
The sooner the farmer and dairyman realize that the secret 
of success in the making of milk and milk-products is clean- 
liness — and by cleanliness we mean essentially methods to 
prevent the entrance of germs into milk — the better will it 
be for them and for everyone. 

Germs, or, as they are more technically termed, bac- 
teria, are the most minute forms of plant life we know. 
They occur in various shapes, but chiefly in the form of 
either rods, round cells or spirals. When seen through the 
microscope they present somewhat the appearance of minute 
pencils, billiard balls or cork-screws, according as they be- 
long to one or the other of these three types. In masses 
of thousands they may be visible to the naked eye as specks 
like mold, but singly they can only be seen with a com- 
pound microscope magnifying more than 500 times. The 



4 CLEAN MILK 

most common of all varieties of germs in milk are those 
which cause it to sour — the lactic acid bacilli (the bacilli are 
the rod or pencil-shaped germs), and these are about 3-25,000 
of an inch long and 1-25,000 of an inch broad. Germs 
grow on vegetable and animal matter, but not in the tissues 
or cells of living animals or vegetables, althougTi they are 
found on all parts of them exposed to the air. Germs are, 
in fact, everywhere — in the air, in water, in soil, on the 
skin and in the digestive canal of animals and on the sur- 
face of plants and in dust. Professor Conn has found as 
many as 200 different kinds of germs in milk alone. Germs. 



Fig. I. 




2^ C 

General shape of bacteria, a, spheres ; b, rods ; c, spirals. (After Conn.) 



0^0 

a O 



propagate by dividing into two equal parts — more usually 
— which form new individuals. The time required for a 
germ to mature and form a new germ may not be more than 
twenty minutes. 

Germs also multiply by spores — that is, small, round 
or egg-shaped bodies appear within the mature germ and 
these later break loose and develop, under favorable cir- 
cumstances, into full-grown germs again. Germs which 
increase in this manner are much more difficult to kill, for 
in the spore stage they often defy prolonged heat, even at 
the boiling temperature, and also cold at or below freezing 
and dryness, as dust, in v ■ 'ch they may exist for years.- 



GERMS IN RELATION TO MILK 5 

To show the possibilities in the way of multiplication, it has 
been calculated that a single germ, under favorable circum- 
stances, may within twenty-four hours produce over sixteen 
millions of progeny. 

Germs, however, depend upon certain conditions for 
their growth ; otherwise they would crowd all other life 
off the globe. Besides organic matter to feed on, the chief 
circumstances limiting their existence are heat and moisture. 
Germs usually do not grow at a temperature below 39*^ or 
above 140° F. Freezing does not necessarily destroy 
germs — as, for instance, the germs of typhoid fever have 
remained alive in ice for a period of three months — but this 
temperature checks their growth and many kinds of germs 
are killed by it. Ice water is therefore comparatively free 
from germs. The most favorable temperature for the 
growth of disease germs is that of the animal body — from 
98^ F. to 103^ F. — while most other germs multiply most 
readily between the temperatures of 59^ F. and ']']'^ F. 

This knowledge is of the greatest importance in the 
care of milk and teaches us that the chief essential consists 
in cooling it immediately to a low temperature — 40^^ F. to, 
50^ F. — and keeping it at this temperature thereafter till 
consumed. The number of germs in milk is always estimated 
as that number contained in a cubic centimeter of milk. A 
•cubic centimeter represents a cube holding a quantity of 
hquid equivalent to about one-quarter of a teaspoonful, or 
sixteen drops of water. If milk is kept at below 50" F. for 
24 hours there is not only not an increase but generally a 
decrease in the number of germs, and the same usually 
holds good for milk kept 36 hours below 45*^ F. After 36 
hours, when milk is kept at 40° F., there is an increase in 
the number of germs. Dr. Park found in a sample of milk 



6 CLEAN MILK 

containing only 3,000 germs in the cubic centimeter, that 
after 24 hours at 42° F. it contained 2,600 germs ; after 48 
hours 3,600 germs ; and after 96 hours 500,000 germs to 
the cubic centimeter. The number of germs in milk kept 
at 32*-^ F. lessens from day to day. 

When milk is kept at higher temperatures the germs 
multiply rapidly and it sours and deteriorates correspond- 
ingly. It has been shown that very clean milk (containing 
but 3,000 germs to the cubic centimeter^, if kept for 24 
hours at 60*^ F., held 180,000 germs; if kept at 86^ F. for 
24 hours it contained 1,400,000 germs; and at 94^ F. the 
germs multiplied so tremendously that at the end of 24. 
hours the same milk contained 25 billion germs per cubic 
centimeter. 

All germs require some moisture in order that they may 
actually grow, but they may exist in large quantities — for a 
longer or shorter time — in dust. Some require air for their 
existence, others do not. 

Sunlight is one of the most powerful enemies of germs, 
since few will thrive in sunlight, especially in the presence 
of plenty of air. This explains the value of sunning dairy 
utensils and of permitting the sunlight to enter freely into 
the barn and dairy. Some germs grow more readily in sub- 
stances having an alkaline or neutral reaction ; others, as 
those which cause milk to sour, flourish in an acid medium, 
providing the acidity is not too great. 

The most potent factors in destroying germs are intense 
heat and cold, sunlight and chemicals. A temperature 
varying from 140*^ to 158° F. will kill most germs — if con- 
tinued long enough or repeated at frequent intervals. Milk 
treated by continued, intermittent heating at 140^^ F. has 
been kept for years without changing, owing to the destruc- 



GERMS IN RELA TION TO MILK 7 

tion of germs (and ferments) in it. As the time required 
for the destruction of germs at this temperature is too great 
for practical dairy purposes, a temperature of 165^ F. is 
usually applied for either killing or checking the de\elop- 
ment of germs in milk. Heating milk with this object in 
view is called technically pasteurization, after the great 
originator of the process. If properly done for twenty min- 
utes, pasteurization kills most of the germs in milk and this 
is the best way to obviate the dangers of dirty milk for 
human consumption — more particularly in the case of 
infants. There are certain drawbacks to the process, how- 
ever. If the milk has been kept long before heating, poisons 
may form in it which the heat will not destroy. Many 
medical authorities believe that milk thus heated is less 
digestible, but this is an unsettled matter at present. There 
are certain substances present in cows' milk exactly resem- 
bling those which bring about the digestion of food in the 
stomach and bowels of man and animals. These chemical 
substances in milk or in the digestive organs are called fer- 
ments. They appear to aid the digestibility of milk, 
particularly in infants, and are destroyed by heating milk 
over 179° F., or at a lower temperature if the milk is 
repeatedly heated. It is generally accepted, however, that 
babies will not thrive so well on pasteurized milk for long 
periods, as on clean, unheated milk, and occasionally 
develop malnutrition, anemia, rickets and scurvy. The 
last may be prevented by feeding infants a small amount 
of orange juice daily. The simplest method of home 
pasteurization consists in pouring a quart of milk into 
a two-quart glass preserve jar and placing the jar 
with the milk in it on a flat, thin piece of wood (to 
prevent breaking of the jar by heat) in an open kettle. 
Warm water is then poured into the kettle so that it 



8 CLEAN MILK 

will rise to almost the level of the milk In the jar and 
the kettle Is set upon a stove. When the water in the 
kettle begins to boil the kettle is removed to the back or 
side of the stove — where it will receive but little heat — for 
twenty minutes, and then the bottle is taken from the kettle 
and placed in a refrigerator. As I have observed, in pasteur- 
ization done on a large scale for market purposes in Seattle, 
the result has been a farce other than it enabled the milk- 
man to keep the milk for perhaps twenty-four hours longer 
than it would have otherwise kept sweet. The pasteuriza- 
tion of the market milk was only done for three minutes, 
possibly because the machine — which permitted of a cpntin- 
uous flow of milk through it — was not competent to do the 
work properly, but also because thoroughly pasteurized 
milk has a cooked taste and cream does not rise readily 
from it, much of the fat remaining in the skim milk. The 
pasteurizers having a large chamber, in which the milk may 
be retained for the required time at the proper temperature, 
are preferable. Short pasteurization prevents milk from 
souring quickly because the germs which cause milk to sour 
are those most readily succumbing to heat. The general 
effect of short pasteurization is simply to check — for a longer 
or shorter time — the growth of germs. They are retarded 
in their development, not killed. Disease germs are not 
destroyed at all in the process. Experiments which 1 have 
conducted with the pasteurized milk of the general market 
showed that while containing but 15,000 germs to the cubic 
centimeter, soon after emerging from the pasteurizer on the 
delivery wagon, in twenty-four hours the same milk con- 
tained several million germs to the cubic centimeter. Drs. 
Bergey and Pennington found much the same result in 
Philadelphia ; that raw and recently pasteurized milk con- 



GERMS IN RELATION TC MILK 9 

tained respectively 1,260 and 12 bacteria, but, at the end of 
72 hours, the numbers were 17,000,000 and 148,000,000 
^erms. Also the harmless lactic acid germs of raw milk 
are killed by heat, and the more dangerous germs from 
dirty bottles, corks and dust contaminate the improperly 
pasteurized milk. I have, however, pasteurized fresh, clean 
milk for twenty minutes and exposed it at mild spring 
weather temperature for nineteen hours in a sealed bottle 
with the result that it was absolutely free from germs at the 
end of that time. If pasteurization is done thoroughly the 
lactic acid bacilli (sour milk germs) are destroyed and so 
the milk does not sour but putrefies when it ages. 

Pasteurization prevents milk from being properly cur- 
dled by rennet and so unfits milk for cheese-making. Pas- 
teurized milk or cream may be used to advantage for butter- 
making when the lactic acid germs are added In the form of 
sour milk, known as a "starter," which will be described later. 
If we must have dirty milk, pasteurization is the best remedy 
for this unhappy state of affairs, but it may well prove 
undesirable to thus remove the incentive to dairymen to 
produce clean milk. If done at all for the market, it should 
be done thoroughly by heating the milk for twenty minutes 
to 1650 F., followed by rapid cooling.* If milk is not cooled 
down to a low point after pasteurization, spores will develop 
which have escaped destruction on account of their great 
resistance to heat, and these will result in germs which, 
while not souring milk, act on the casein to cause it to 
curdle and perhaps become poisonous and putrid. In 
Europe pasteurization of milk is much more common than 
in this country, since ice is in less common use. In Den- 
mark it is required by law, so that tuberculosis may not be 
spread when skim milk Is returned from the creameries and 

* Pasteurized milk wliich is sold for general consumption should be always 
marked as such, iu order that infants shall not be harmed by its use. 



lO CLEAN MILK 

fed to calves. This custom might well be imitated in the 
United States, since the young stock are not only protected 
from disease, but the keeping quality of the skim milk is so 
much improved. A higher temperature than 165° F. gives 
the milk a boiled taste and alters its composition to some 
extent. Steam or boiling water are used to destroy germs 
in or on dairy utensils. 

Chemicals find little use as germ-destroyers in a pro- 
perly conducted dairy or farm. They may be employed to 
some extent in the barn (as lime scattered on the floor), 
or in case milk products become faulty through some con- 
tamination with special germs in the stable or dairy, when 
general disinfection is in order. The employment of the 
various preservatives under the trade names of Freezine, 
Iceline, Preservaline, Milk Sweet (all containing from two 
to five per cent, of formaldehyde), and others containing 
boric acid, as Dry Antiseptic, Preserving Salts, "A" Pre- 
servaline, Cream Albuminoid, Patent " M " Preservaline 
and Ozone Antiseptic Compound, are employed to keep 
milk from souring without the use of ice or cleanliness by 
killinor or checkincr the crrowth of crerms in milk. Their 
use is contrary to law and detrimental to the consumer's 
health, especially when employed, as they usually are, in a 
careless way, without regard to what the effect of a con- 
siderable amount of the chemical might be. Thus the 
following instance is related in the Year Book of the 
Department of Agriculture for 1900 of a case where a 
preserving fluid was first added to the milk by the farmer, 
then by the collector of the milk, again by the wholesale 
dealer, and finally the fourth dose by the retail dealer. 

If it were impossible to produce clean milk or to pre- 
serve it with ice, and if preservatives could be used properly 



GERMS IN RELATION TO MILK ii 

in a harmless dose, their employment might be permitted, 
but such is not the case. 

Significance of Gcrnis in Milk 

The growth of large numbers of germs in milk causes 
it to deteriorate because they remove nutriment or alter the 
milk chemically and thus lessen its food-value. Ordinary 
market milk, which is overrun with germs, loses much of its 
value as food after it is twenty-four hours old. The ideal 
result would be reached if milk could be withdrawn from 
the cow absolutely free from germs. This might be pos- 
sible if germs did not enter the udder in the air through the 
opening in the teat and find their way into the cavity or 
milk-cistern in the lower part of the udder. As the milking 
proceeds the germs in the milk-cistern and teat are washed 
away so that the latter part of the milk withdrawn is often 
absolutely free from germs until contaminated with the out- 
side air. Occasionally germs may persist in milk throughout 
milking, and the strippings may contain as many as 500 
germs to the cubic centimeter. If the latter part of the 
milk is withdrawn through an absolutely clean milking tube 
into an absolutely clean bottle, it will often be wholly with- 
out germs, and may keep sweet for months or years if it 
does not come in contact with the air. Such painstaking 
cleanliness as is necessary to make this experiment suc- 
cessful, is not of course practicable in actual dairy work, 
since it is not economically possible to throw away a laro-er 
part of the milk nor to withdraw milk so that it will not 
come in contact with air.* Therefore, under any ordinary 
conditions a certain number of germs must inevitably be 
present in the cleanest milk — perhaps 200 to 4,000 as the 
least number to the cubic centimeter. 

* Since writing the above the use of the milking machine (see p. 189) makes 
withdrawal of milk without exposure to air practicable. 



3 2 CLEAN MILK 

Then, if the milk is immediately cooled to 40° F. and 
retained at this temperature, the number of germs will lessen 
until it is thirty-six hours old. 

The presence of many thousand germs to the cubic 
centimeter in milk freshly withdrawn indicates filthiness of 
the cow, milker or surroundings. 

The existence of a great variety of germs in milk sev- 
eral hours old signifies contamination of the milk with filth 
also, because in clean milk only one kind of germs (lactic 
acid bacilli) are found very numerous after many hours. 

While the .mere fact that milk contains a vast number 
of germs is not a sure proof of its unwholesomeness — 
because the commonest grerms in milk are harmless and 
because milk may contain but a few germs and these may 
be the cause of dangerous disease in man — yet the estima- 
tion of the number of germs in milk is to-day the best 
method we possess for determining its purity. 

Ordinary market milk contains as many germs as sew- 
age, and unusually dirty milk contains more germs than 
sewage was ever known to hold. This is, however, not at 
all a fair comparison, for while sewage is likely to contain 
all sorts of germs of disease, the germs in dirty milk are 
mostly not disease-germs. 

We may consider the influence of germs in milk under 
two heads : i. The effects of germs on milk and its products. 
2. The influence of eerms in milk on the consumer. 

I. The Effects of Germs on Milk and Its Products. — 
All fermentation and putrefaction or.rotting, anywhere and 
of anything, are due to germs. 

Germs are the great disintegrating agencies in the 
world ; they tend to break up complex, natural constituents 



GERMS IN RELATION TO MILK 13 

in milk and Its products int.o simpler bodies. The com- 
monest germs in milk — as we have noted — are those causing 
sourino- of milk ; they are invariably present and are about 
the only kind existing in very clean milk. They act to fer- 
ment or change the natural sugar of milk into an acid (lactic 
acid), and if they occur in large numbers a few hours after 
milking it is a sign that the milk has not been properly 
cooled and will sour early. Lactic acid germs, or those 
producing souring of milk, besides being the most common, 
are of most importance in their influence on milk and its 
products. They exist in very small numbers in milk soon 
after leaving the cow, but as they grow more readily than 
all other germs in milk at favorable temperatures (above 50^ 
and better over 70° F.), they often constitute almost 50 per 
cent, of all the germs in twenty-four hours. While, after 
this time, they gradually crowd out the different varieties of 
competing germs until they produce so much acid that the 
milk or cream sours and curdles, and they have multiplied 
so rapidly and have made the milk so unfavorable for other 
germs that they form from 90 to 99 per cent, of all the 
germs present. This is a most favorable occurrence, because 
the flavor of most butter and cheese is chiefly dependent on 
the action of the lactic acid germs, and in their growth they 
protect the milk from the action of miscellaneous germs 
which would spoil these products. 

Even to man the growth of the lactic acid germs is a 
favorable happening, as they are not harmful to adults in 
themselves and tend to check the development of other 
harmful ^erms in the digestive canal.* As we have pointed 
out, heating milk to 155° or 165^ F. readily kills the lactic 
acid crerms. Therefore such milk does not sour, but is 
changed by the action of other harmful germs so that it rots 

* Indeed Metchnikoflf, perhaps the most celebrated living authority on the 
action of germs on the body, beUves that lactic acid germs in buttermilk consti- 
tute one of the best agencies for prolonging life. 



14 CLEAN MILK 

or putrefies when old. A low temperature (40^ F.) also 
retards the development of the lactic acid germs and they 
are killed when the milk or cream becomes very sour by 
means of the lactic acid they themselves produce. The 
action of these lactic acid orerms is taken advantage of in 
the ripening of cream for butter by adding them in great 
numbers, either by the use of sour cream or milk, or by 
laboratory methods by which they can be obtained in pure 
culture — that is, free from admixture with other varieties of 
germs (see page 39). Lactic acid germs are not found in 
milk when it leaves the udder, but enter the milk when it is 
exposed to air. They are thought to reside on the skin of 
the cow, in dust, in the air or surroundings of the barn. 
Ordinary market milk at 50^ F. sours in 120 hours; at 60*^ 
F. it sours in 66 hours; at 98^^ it sours in 16 to 18 hours. 

At the Paris exposition of 1900 there was an exhibit of 
dairy products, under care of Major Alford of the U. S. 
Department of Agriculture, which consisted of fresh milk 
and cream shipped from Illinois, New Jersey and New York 
in hot weather (July). Coming some 3,000 to 4,000 miles, 
the cream and milk were perfectly sweet a fortnight after 
being bottled, while the only other competitor was the 
French with a local supply which did not keep a day after 
reaching the grounds. Cleanliness and cold were the only 
methods used in so wonderfully preserving this milk, 

If milk is very dirty, however, it is not safe to keep it 
too long with ice, even if it does not sour and is unaltered 
in taste, as various sorts of harmful germs may develop at 
a low temperature. Thus, milk containing, soon after milk- 
ing, some 800,000 germs to the cubic centimeter, after four 
days at 41*^ F. contained almost five million germs and 
became sour. At the end of ten days this same milk con- 



GERMS IN RELATION TO MILK 1 5 

tained over 400 million germs, or over ten times the num- 
ber of germs in the same milk kept the same time at 59^ F.* 
The milk kept at a higher temperature soured more quickly 
and the acid destroyed many of the germs in the process. 

There is a large class of germs known as putrefactive 
germs because they produce changes in milk which are akin 
to rottincy of meat. If these continue to develop long 
enouo-h they may impart a bad odor to milk or its products 
and are likely to induce diarrhoeal diseases in children. 
These germs are more liable to arise from the contamina- 
tion of milk with manure and are the germs which have 
escaped from the intestines of the cow. 

If milk contains many of this type of germs it signifies 
that the milk was withdrawn under filthy conditions. There 
are a oreat number of germs in milk which apparently have 
no effect upon its character and also are not harmful to the 
consumer. It is practically impossible to discover the 
germs of special diseases in milk with any certainty, so that 
besides recognizing the chief types of germs— the lactic acid 
germs, the putrefactive germs, and miscellaneous germs 
whose action is unknown to us — the best that can be done 
at present is to estimate the number of germs in milk per 
cubic centimeter. Large numbers of miscellaneous and 
putrefactive germs signify that the milk is contaminated 
with filth and is most dangerous. Large numbers of lactic 
acid germs indicate that the milk has not been kept cool 
enoucrh or is old. Freedom from any considerable number 
of germs is a pretty certain sign that the milk has been 
drawn from the cow and handled in a cleanly manner ; has 
been properly cooled and is likely to be uncontaminated 



*Swithinbank & Newman. 



1 6 CLEAN MILK 

with disease-germs. This is the justification of cities which 
require that milk shall not contain more than a specified 
number of germs (bacteria) to the cubic centimeter. 

Thus the law in force in Boston requires that milk sold 
in that city shall not contain more than 500,000 germs to 
the cubic centimeter. 

It has generally been admitted that it is difificult to 
obtain any large supply of milk which shall certainly contain 
less than 30,000 germs to the cubic centimeter. In various 
parts of the United States milk of such purity is now sold 
and is often called " Certified Milk," when certified by some 
responsible body who have a laboratory to daily determine 
that the milk comes up to the required standard. The 
name "Certified Milk" originated with Henry L. Coit, 
M.D. He established a commission of medical men in 
Newark, N. J., in 1893, who made an agreement with a 
dairyman of Caldwell, N.J., to furnish milk subject to their 
requirements and inspection which should be known as 
"Certified Milk" when approved by the commission. 

Any person who pretends to produce clean milk must 
submit to the germ standard, as this is the best m.eans of 
estimating purity which we now possess. Exactly what 
that standard should be has, however, not been generally 
agreed upon.* It is perfectly possible to produce milk 
which shall not contain more than a few hundred, or, at 
most, not more than 2,000 to 4,000 germs to the cubic 
centimeter without great expense, if every precaution to 
secure cleanliness be observed in milkinof and handllno- 
the milk. 

The usual contamination of milk with germs may be 
judged by the following figures with the understanding that 
great improvement is taking place owing to the interest 

* It is not unusual to find 10,000 germs as the maximum number per cubic 
centimeter permitted in certain localities for certified milk. 

The standard of Albanj^ for certified milk has been 80,000 ; for Rochester 
and New York City, 30,000 ; for Philadelphia and Milwaukee, 10,000. 



GERMS IN RELATION TO MILK 17 

which has been shown in the matter of obtaining a pure 
milk supply in recent years by physicians and others. In 
Boston, during the spring of 1 890, 5 7 samples of milk showed 
an average of 2,355,500 germs in the better class milk, and 
of 4,557,000 germs in grocery milk. In winter the growth 
of germs is considerably lessened by the colder temperature 
and this is somewhat counterbalanced by the filthier condi- 
tions of the barn floors, air and of the animals. On the 
whole, winter milk is, however, much freer from germs. 
The New York County Medical Society issue a certificate 
of inspection to farmers who will follow their directions for 
producing a second-grade, pure milk which shall not average 
over 100,000 germs from May to October, and not over 
60,000 germs from October to May. In Seattle I found 
in twenty-eight examinations of different samples of milk 
on as many days in May and June, that sixteen samples 
averaged over 3,000,000 germs, and twelve samples less 
than 1,000,000 germs per cubic centimeter. The examina- 
tion of these milk samples was done when the milk was 
fifteen to thirty-six hours old, on the way to the consumer's 
house, being taken from the delivery wagons or on arrival 
of the milk train. 

A great many conditions may alter the number of 
germs in milk if milk is not produced and handled in a 
proper manner. Time and temperature are the two most 
important factors upon which the growth of germs depends 
— and the greatest of these is temperature. The milk from 
one farm examined at the same hour on two consecutive 
days averaged 1,150,000 germs on the first day — which was 
warm for May — and 48,000 germs the following day, which 
was cold and rainy. The great increase of germs when milk 
is kept at improper temperatures, we have already noticed, 



1 8 CLEAN MILK 

the number of germs in such milk depending entirely upon 
its aofe. To show the effect of dust and unclean utensils on 
milk I may cite the following : a sample of pasteurized 
milk, taken from a delivery wagon and examined by the 
writer, contained seven million germs, while from the same 
wagon was also taken a sample of the same milk put into 
sealed milk bottles which contained but 24,000 germs 
to the cubic centimeter. The first sample was taken from 
a large can which was frequently opened to pour out small 
quantities for consumers and very likely the can was unclean 
before the milk was put into it. 

Germs do not multiply at all in milk at 32° F., no mat- 
ter how long it is kept. After the milk is withdrawn from 
the cow the number of germs in it generally diminishes for 
a longer or shorter time, and after this period the number 
rapidly increases. Thus at fifty degrees the number of germs 
may not be greater in thirty or forty hours than it was when 
the milk was first withdrawn. At a higher temperature the 
germs begin to multiply in the milk as soon as the third 
hour after it has left the cow. Each variety of germ 
has a special temperature at which it flourishes to best 
advantage. The lactic acid germs grow more favorably at 
comparatively high temperatures — from 70^ to 90*^ F., or 
even higher. 

There are certain special germs — not all of which have 
been studied — which produce special faults, or, as they have 
been called, diseases of milk. 

-Thus the butyric acid germs develop that acid by the 
splitting up the fat in rancid butter. Yellow, red, blue, 
brown and green milk are rarely seen and the particular 
coloration is due to changes produced in the milk by special 
germs. So also are slimy milk, bitter, stringy and soapy 



GERMS IN RELATION TO MILK 1 9 

milk, entirely owing to germ-development and its effect on 
milk. 

This whole book is chiefly devoted to the influence of 
o-erms on milk, in one way or another, and further reference 
to the subject will be found under the special topics con- 
sidered. 

2. Action of Germs in Milk Upon the Consumer. — 
As we have already intimated, germs do not enter milk 
during its formation in the udder of the cow, in normal 
conditions, but only gain entrance to milk through the 
medium of the air when the milk flows into the receptacle 
or cistern which communicates with the air through the 
opening in the teat. We showed that if the milk cistern 
was washed out clean and that if then a milking tube was 
introduced into the teat it was possible to secure milk 
free from germs altogether and which would therefore 
remain sweet indefinitely if kept in a sealed flask. If the 
cow is suffering from a germ disease it is possible for the 
germs to get into the milk, during its formation in the 
udder, from the blood of the animal, if it has a general dis- 
ease, or what is still more likely, if there is disease of the 
udder itself, the germs may find their way into the milk 
directly from the diseased parts. Inflammation of the udder 
may be caused by various germs, of which the germ of tuber- 
culosis is one and perhaps the most dangerous. This germ 
is found in milk then more frequently when tuberculosis 
affects the udder, but possibly also when tuberculosis attacks 
other parts of the cow. Just how common, and how 
important, therefore, is tuberculosis in the cow a source of 
the disease in man througrh drinking- milk of tuberculous 
cows, it is impossible to say. Cases of tuberculosis in 



20 CLEAN MILK 

human beings have undoubtedly arisen from this source and 
in consequence it is essential that all cows should be tested 
with tuberculin, to exclude the possibility of tuberculosis, 
before the milk is used for dairy purposes. 

The germs of tuberculosis have been found not only 
in milk, but in cream and butter, although there is no cer- 
tain evidence that the disease was ever produced in man by 
the latter two products. 

The more ordinary germs which cause acute inflamma- 
tion of the udder, or garget, are those which produce acute 
inflammation and pus in all parts of the body, and pus or 
"matter" is often found in the milk (see page 159). 

Milk obtained from cows with garget is highly danger- 
ous to man and causes disease in him which in some cases 
resembles diphtheria and at other times has appeared iden- 
tical with scarlet fever. The milk from such cows may com- 
municate the inflammation of the udder to other cows in 
the same barn by means of germs carried by the milker's 
hands. Therefore cows with caked or inflamed udders 
should be kept apart and milked by one not milking the 
healthy cows. The milk from cows with foot-and-mouth 
disease has been the means of communicating this disease 
to man, giving rise in him to sore mouth, tender swellings 
under the jaw, an eruption of blisters or " cold sores " on the 
face, fever and disturbance of the digestion. Cow pox, 
milk fever, anthrax and pleuropneumonia in cows have 
been conveyed by the germs of these diseases, in their milk, 
to human beings. 

It may be positively affirmed that the milk from a sick 
cow or one receiving drugs, is not fit for human consump- 
tion. The milk of tuberculous cows may be safely fed to 
swine or calves after boiling for ten or more minutes. 



GERMS IN RELA TION TO MILK 2 1 

The germs of typhoid fever, diphtheria and scarlet 
fever* ( rarely of cholera, dysentery and smallpox) occasion- 
ally find their way Into milk, owing to the milk coming in 
contact with human patients suffering from these diseases, 
or with their surroundings, or from contamination of milk 
utensils with water harboring the germs of typhoid fever. 
Also, by wading In filth containing the bowel and urinary 
discharges of human beings, cows may contaminate their 
udders with germs of typhoid fever and thus convey them 
to milk. 

Other agencies by which disease germs may be carried 
to milk and by which many cases of typhoid fever, dlph- 
terla and scarlet fever have been communicated to man 
are as follows : by attendants In the sick room coming in 
contact with milk, by dish cloths, brushes and other articles 
coming in contact with the sick and milk utensils as well, 
by contact of milk with flies and by contact of milk with 
persons handling human excrement. 

The lesson which should be taken to heart is that no 
sick person or one coming In contact with persons sick with 
communicable diseases, should be allowed to have anything 
to do with the handling of milk, milk utensils or be per- 
mitted entrance to. barn or dairy. Milk should be kept in a 
room separate from human habitation, and all the utensils 
should be kept and cared for in this milk room. Young chil- 
dren should be excluded from barn and dairy, as they are 
much more prone to contagious diseases than adults. Dogs 
and cats may be carriers of germs, dirt and parasites, and 
should also be kept out of these places. The water used In 
connection with the dairy should be examined for purity 
by a competent chemist. 

All forms of disease conveyed by germs in milk to 

* Physicians are required by law to report all cases of infectious disease to 
the local board of health. It should also be made mandatory that physicians 
state the name of the milk dealer supplying the patient with milk, in the case 
of every report of infectious disease, as is done in Mt. Vernon, N.Y. In this way 
endemics originating in milk contamination with human infections could be 
ireadily traced. 



22 CLEAN MILK 

human adults are as nothing in comparison with the damage- 
wrought by germ-laden milk upon infants. Cholera infan- 
tum, in fact, is but another name for acute milk poison- 
ing. Practically almost all the cases of summer diar- 
rhoea in babies are caused by germs in milk. These 
are probably chiefly of the putrefactive type which 
enter milk from manure on the cow. Indeed, in some 
localities from 40 to 60 per cent, of the deaths in infants, 
from all causes result from dirty milk. The wonderful 
reduction in the death rate of infants in some of our laree- 
cities — which is one of the remarkable signs of modern 
progress — has been brought about solely by the recognition 
of this fact. 

This reduction is directly traceable to the use of pure 
milk or, where this is not obtainable, to milk heated to 165^ F. 
for thirty minutes, at which temperature the growth, of germs 
is killed or checked. Violent and often fatal poisoning, 
resembling cholera, is produced by a substance (tyrotoxicon) 
formed by certain germs in milk kept in dirty, covered 
vessels during hot weather. The same poison has some- 
times been found in cheese, cream and ice cream and has 
also caused fatal results. Heating impure milk will destroy 

this poison. Chiefly through the laudable and efhcient 
work of Health Officer G. W. Goler, M.D., in supplying cer- 
tified milk to the public of Rochester, N. Y., the infant 
mortality has been reduced as follows: 1887-1896, before 
milk work was done, the average mortality in infants under 
I year in the month of July was 1,010 ; 1897-1906, after the 
milk work was begun the average mortality was only 413 
in July under the same circumstances. 



CHAPTER II. 



COMPOSITION OF MILK AND CREAM AND 
THEIR PRODUCTS 



MILK is a white, opaque fluid, when seen in bulk, 
but appears transparent in thin layers. It has a 
peculiar, pleasant odor and taste which cannot be 
described. They can best be appreciated — by comparison 
— when they are absent. Thus, milk which has been heated 
in open vessels or passed through a separator loses some of 
its finest flavor. This flavor resides in a volatile substance 
which escapes in either process. 

Chemically, milk is composed of all the essentials of a 
complete food. That is, it is a single substance which con- 
tains all the food-elements necessary to indefinitely support 
life. These food-elements are known technically as Pro- 
leids, Fat^ Sugar and Mineral Matters. 

Proteids in milk have the same food value as flesh or 
eggs. Water is, of course, the largest constituent of milk, 
forming about 87 per cent, of it. 

The solids make up the remainder of milk, amountino- 
to about 13 per cent, and comprising the substances we 
have just enumerated, proteids, fat, sugar and mineral mat- 
ters. Omitting the mineral matters or salts, we may, in a 
general way, remember the proportion of proteids, fat and 
sugar as four per cent, of each, the percentage of proteids 
being slightly b'elow and that of sugar slightly above these 
figures. The fat is the only one of these constituents which 



33 



24 CLEAN MILK 

varies greatly and this indeed varies tremendously (from 
1.5 to 13. per cent.) and owing- to a great variety of 
circumstances which will be noted. 

If the fat is all removed from milk — which can practi- 
cally be done with the separator — we have left the skim 
milk, which is composed of the proteids, sugar and water. 
The sugar is of a kind peculiar to milk and therefore called 
milk sugar. It is found in no other substance and is not 
nearly so sweet as ordinary or cane sugar. The souring of 
milk is due to fermentaton of milk sugar which takes place 
through the action of certain germs (lactic acid germs), 
which we have already mentioned and which are always 
present in the cleanest milk. These germs lead to the 
breaking up (fermentation) of the sugar in milk into lactic 
acid (or milk acid). We have accounted for the sugar in 
the skim milk ; we have left for consideration the pro- 
teids and mineral matters. The proteids are of two kinds : 
Casein (or caseinogen) and Albumin. Casein forms 
nearly four-fifths of the proteids and is that part of milk 
which makes the curd of skim milk or the part of milk which 
forms the bulk of cheese. The word caseous means cheesy. 
The other kind of proteid or albumin remains mostly in the 
whey when milk is curdled. Casein exists in the form of 
microscopic solid particles floating in the milk, while the 
albumin is in actual solution, together with the mineral 
matter, in the water of the milk. 

This will be apparent if milk is kept a long while, when 
the cream (mostly fat) rises to the top ; ^he casein settles as 
another white layer to the bottom of the vessel, while in 
between these is seen a third clear layer (serum) consisting of 
water, in which remain dissolved the mineral matter and 
albumin (Fig. 2). 



ViQ. 2. 




The Constituent Elements of Milk-Fat, Serum, and Casein. 
(From Switliiubauk & Newman). 



COMPOSITION OF MILK AND CREAM 25 

Milk curdles because the casein in it clots or coagulates 
by the action of dilute acid (the lactic acid of sour milk), or 
by the ferment, rennet, which represents the dried secretion 
scraped from the calves' stomachs. The second form of 
curdling is what naturally happens when milk is taken into 
the stomach as food. The albumin of milk is not curdled 
by the souring of milk or by rennet, but is, to a slight extent, 
by heat at a temperature over 162^ F. 

The fat in milk occurs as the most minute, microscopic 
globules which float through the milk and, on account of 
their buoyancy, rise more or less quickly to the surface and 
there form cream. These minute droplets of fat are appa- 
rently surrounded by a wonderfully thin pellicle or covering 
which is thought to consist of a layer of casein adhering by 
capillary attraction. If the fat were not thus surrounded the 
orlobules would run together and produce an oily mass. 
The fat globules vary greatly in size, some being six times 
the diameter of others. They average about 1-5,000 of an 
inch in diameter, and one drop of milk no larger than a pin- 
head may contain 1,500,000 fat globules. The larger glob- 
ules of fat are most buoyant and rise to the surface ; only 
t'.iG smallest remain in skim milk. The fat orlobules are 
larger In some breeds of animals, particularly the Jerseys, 
and the cream therefore rises more rapidly and completely. 
The fat globules are arranged in groups or clumps in milk 
instead, of being uniformly scattered throughout the fluid. 
This is of considerable practical Importance, for milk which 
has been separated or heated (pasteurized) does not cream 
so well because the clumps of fat globules are broken up and 
so do not rise so quickly or completely. For example, milk 
is passed through a separator not revolving fast enough to 
separate the milk from the cream (which is sometimes done to 



26 



CLEAN MILK 



remove the dirt from milk), and the milk is tottled. The 
cream will rise from this milk slowly and incompletely, and 
the cream, when it has risen, will appear so thin that a 
twenty per cent, cream may not seem thicker nor richer 
than rich milk. 

Pasteurizing milk will cause much the same result, if the 
milk is subjected to considerable agitation in the process. 

The mineral matter in milk comprises a very small 
amount of variety of salts and altogether they do not form 
quite one per cent, of the whole milk. 

The following table perhaps fairly represents the com- 
position of what might be called average milkf from a large 
herd of average cows of various breeds : 

Per Cent. 

Water 87.00 

Fat 4.00 

Proteids 3.30 

Sugar 4.95 

Mineral Matter 0.75 

We will now consider in detail the various circum- 
stances which modify the composition of milk. It Is a curi- 
ous fact that the character of the food of cows has little 
Influence upon the composition of milk although it affects 
tremendously the yield of milk. The composition of the 
milk is dependent on the cow and breed, and is as much a 
characteristic as her color and as difficult to chanofe. The 
following table illustrates the average composition of the 
milk of herds of different breecis of cows : 





*Durham 

or 
Shorthorn 


Devon 


Ayrshire 


Holstein- 
Friesian 


Jersey 


Brown 
Swiss 


Common 
Native 


Fat 

Sugar 

Proteids . . . 
Min' Im't'rh 


4.04 

4 34 
4.17 

0.73 


409 

432 
4.04 

073 


3-89 
4.41 
4 01 
073 


2 SB 
4 33 
3-99 
0.74 


5 22 
484 
3-.SS 
0.73 


4. CO 

430 
4 00 
0.76 


369 

4-35 
409 
0.76 



* Abstract of tables compiled hy Mr. Gordon, of Walker Gordon Laboratory. 
The figures for Holstein-Friesian in the case of fnt are rather low ; 3.2 per cent. 
fat would be nearer the minimum average. — K. W. 

f The U. S. Pure Food Act of 1906 fixes the standard formilk as follows: 
Solids not fat, 8.5 per cent.; milk fat, 3.5 per cent.; milk solids, total, 11.75 per 
•cent. Skimmed milk to contain 9.25 per cent, of total solids. 



COMPOSITION OF MILK AND CREAM 27 

According to the statutes of the various states,* the 
required standard of composition of milk differs to a sHght 
extent, but as much as three per cent, of fat is demanded in 
every state, except Rhode Island, and solids amounting to 
twelve per cent., in most states, and as high as thirteen per 
cent, in some. 

The composition of milk varies according to the period 
of milking, the milk growing richer in fat and the fat glob- 
ules larger as milking advances, the last of the milking or 
"strippings" being very rich. 

Per Cent. 
Fat. 

t Fore Milk ; 38 

Middle Milk 6 74 

Strippings 8. 1 2 

The reason for this is said to be that the fat globules are 
retarded by friction on the sides of the milk ducts in the 
udder and are forced out in abundance towards the last of 
milking. The percentage of the other solids remains prac- 
tically unchanged at different periods of milking. 

If cows are milked at frequent intervals the yield of 
milk is greater and the percentage of fat larger. The milk 
is formed in the cells of the udder and is conducted through 
numerous fine tubes of increasing size until it empties into 
a r,eservoir (holding about one-half pint on an average) con- 
nected with the upper end of the canal or opening in the 
centre of each teat. There are therefore four milk cisterns 
in the udder, one for each teat. It is probable that when 
the udder has become accustomed to hold in its ducts and 
cisterns a certain quantity of milk it will for a time secrete 
nearly the same amount during each interval between milk- 



* Laws in force in June, 1900. 

t Dr. Charles Harrington's analysis. 



2 8 CLEAN MILK 

ings. After a while, however — if the cow is milked more 
frequently than usual — the udder will not continue to secrete 
the same amount of milk and the exceptional quantity 
obtained by frequent milkings will cease. Milking three 
times daily is practiced in some parts of Europe, but milk- 
ing more than twice in the twenty-four hours is rarely con- 
sidered economical in the United States, and is not done 
except in the case of very heavy milkers or in cows newly 
calved. 

The longrer the interval between milkinor the larcrer the 
quantity of milk and the poorer the quality of the milk ; the 
shorter the interval, the smaller and richer the yield of milk. 
In the summer the nights are short and therefore the morn- 
ing milking is apt to be richer. In winter the reverse is 
true and the night milking is likely to be the richer. 

The following analyses of the milk of one herd at the 
Delaware Experiment Station show this : 



July 24th 

February 5th. 



Night Milk. 
Per Cent. Fat. 


Morning Milk, 
Per Cent. Fat. 


376 


4.67 


4-56 


3-53 



The season of the year influences the composition of 
milk. In the summer the percentage of fat and other solids 
is lowest. In the winter months the milk is richest in fat 
and solids not fat. Thus in the months of November, 
December and January, the solids may average 13.36 per 
cent, and the fat, 4.16 per cent.; while in May, June and 
July the solids may average 12.68 percent, and the fat 3.82 
per cent. 

The changes in the composition of one cow's milk are 
great and may be brought about through various influences, 
as, for instance, fright, excitement, rough handling, change 



COMPOSITION OF MILK AND CREAM 29 

of milker, exposure to bad weather, unfamiliar surround- 
ings, sudden change in the character of food, and irregu- 
larity in time of milking. It follows without sayino-that all 
these unfavorable influences are, as far as possible, to be 
avoided. 

In an analysis of hundreds of samples of milk from 
single cows, Farrington found that in the case of a Holstein 
there was as much difference between the highest and low- 
est percentage of fat as between 6.6 per cent, and 1.5 per 
cent., while in the case of the Jersey — in which sudden 
changes are most common — the highest was 12.3 per cent, 
of fat ; the lowest, 2.9 of fat. 

The mixed milk of a large herd is pretty constant in com- 
position except as influenced by the season and by the times 
the cows calve. For the composition of milk varies at dif- 
ferent times in the milking period. The milking period 
of the cow lasts about 323 days on the average after 
calving, she going dry about eight weeks before she calves 
again.* 

In cows which are well tended and fed the percentage 
of fat increases as the milking period progresses, so that the 
milk is richer at the close than at the beeinning- of the 
period of milking. 

The period of heat in a cow is often accompanied by a 
diminished yield of milk which is poor in fat (so that the 
fat may be reduced to one per cent.), and the milk curdles 
on boiling. The fat after this period is, however, propor- 
tionately increased over that usually present. 

The milk-yielding capacity of cows generally increases 
up to the eighth year of age, and then decreases. With 
the decrease of yield there appears to be often a decrease in 
fat and total solids in the milk. It was thought at one time 



The interval between two calving days averages about 398 days. 



30 CLEAN MILK 

that the spaying of cows would prove of advantage in sus- 
taining the yield and improving the richness of their milk, 
but it has not been found so in practice, except in those ani- 
mals which are constantly in heat owing to disease. 

The dehorning of cattle is said to improve the yield of 
milk, but there can be no conceivable reason for this other 
than in the freedom from fighting and wounds which this 
practice accomplishes. 

The composition of milk is of great importance in that 
the value of milk depends upon the amount of fat it con- 
tains, other things being equal. 

It has now become the custom for creameries in most 
parts of the country to pay a sum for milk proportionate 
to the amount of butter-fat it contains as estimated by the 
use of the Babcock machine at certain stated intervals. 
First-class, pure or "certified" milks now sold for an 
advanced price in cities should contain a high average of fat. 
Such milk often averages five per cent. Then again it is for 
the farmer's advantage, if he is to produce a high quality of 
milk, that he know the composition of the milk of all his 
individual cows so that the poorer ones may be weeded out. 
This may be accomplished by the use of a. Babcock machine 
on the farm (see p. 142). 

Colostrtwi (common name beastings, etc.). — Colostrum 
is the milk secreted immediately after calving and differs 
very markedly in composition from ordinary milk. Colos- 
trum is of a slightly yellowish or brownish color and has a 
peculiar smell, a slimy consistency and salty taste. The 
proteids are at first large in amount and represent albumins 
rather than casein. For this reason the milk becomes 
curdled on boiling and this is a test for colostrum ; if it 
curds on boiling it is unfit for use. 



COMPOSITION OF MILK AND CREAM 3 1 

The sugar In colostrum is not milk sugar, but repre- 
sents several other varieties. Th® percentage of fat is 
variable, while that of mineral matter is high. Colostrum 
usually separates into two layers on standing. Under the 
microscope there are to be seen in it very large globules of 
fat, called " colostrum corpuscles," and these are character- 
istic of this form of milk. The colostrum varies in com- 
position from one milking to another after calving, becoming 
more and more like ordinary milk. 

The following analysis will give an idea of its compo- 
sition : 

Per Cent. 
Water 78.7 



Fat. 



4.0 



Proteids 14.$ 

Sugar 1.5 

Mineral Matters i.o 



1 00.0 



While the proteids in colostrum are so soluble that they 
can be absorbed by the calf without any tax on its diges- 
tion, and appear to start up digestion in this animal, yet 
colostrum is not wholesome for man for from five to twenty 
days after calving. Legal requirements vary somewhat, 
but usually demand that cows' milk shall not be sold for 
fifteen days before, nor from five to twelve days after the 
calving of the cow supplying the milk. 

The boiling test, referred to above, will show when the 
milk is fit for human consumption. The milk is not fit for 
churning until five days after calving, nor from ten to twelve 
days for making cream cheese. 

Colostral milk and the milk obtained from the cow 
within fifteen days before calving have produced disease in 
man. Colostrum has caused high fever, inflamed throat and 
mouth, which were covered with small sores or ulcers; 



Z2 CLEAN MILK 

while milk from cows, withdrawn a few days before calving,, 
is sometimes the source of colic and diarrhoea in the human. 
The milk from a cow immediately after calving frequently 
contain's blood, coming from that which soils the udder and. 
tail after flowing out of the vagina. 



CHAPTER III 



MILK PRODUCTS 



IT is a curious fact that the quantity of cream obtained 
from setting rich or poor milk is about the same for rich 
as for poor milk, but the cream from the poor milk is 
much thinner and contains less fat. As seen in a glass 
quart milk-jar, the layer of cream forms almost a quarter of 
the bulk of the contents of the bottle, at first, but after 
twenty-four hours or longer the layer of cream becomes less, 
owing to the crowding together of fat globules. When cream 
rises in tall vessels it contains a great deal more fat in its 
upper than in its lower layers. 

In fact, of the cream which rises in a bottle of milk, the 
upper ounce contains as much sometimes as 25 per cent, of 
fat, while the fat in the cream regularly diminishes until at 
the lowest part of the layer of cream, which can be seen as 
a sharp line above the milk, the percentage of fat is not 
quite 10 per cent. As we have already said, the higher the 
creaming temperature the richer will be the cream, and for 
this reason the quantity of it will be much less than from 
the same amount of milk which is set at a low temperature. 
For the lower the cream temperature, especially at the end 
of the creaming period, the greater will be the amount of 
cream and the thinner will it be owinof to the sfi*eater 
quantity of water in it. Milk which has been watered 
throws up its cream much more rapidly than other milk.* 

* This accounts for the custom, with many farmers, of pouring a considerable 
amount of cold water into their milk cans when they wish to secure cream quickly 
for their own use. 
33 



34 CLEAN HULK 

Separator Q>vfi2iVt\ 

By the use of a separator, which consists of a rapidly 
whirling steel bowl (5,000 revolutions, more or less, per 
minute), the heavier portions of the milk — the skim milk 
and dirt — are thrown against the inside of the rotating bowl 
by centrifugal force, while the lighter portion — the cream — 
remains near the centre. The dirt sticks to the side of the 
bowl, where it forms a tough, sticky layer known as separ- 
ator slime. This separator slime is not composed by any 
means of filth entirely, because a good part of it is made up 
of the proteid constituents of the milk (curd); one authority 
says that nine-tenths of the dried slime is formed of this 
natural product of the milk. That there is a great amount of 
filth in ordinary market milk has been abundantly shown. It 
has been estimated that the citizens of New York eat daily 
ten tons of barn filth and refuse in their milk. This amount 
is probably exaggerated, since Berlin is said to furnish its 
inhabitants but 300 pounds of cow dung in its daily milk- 
supply, and, allowing a wide margin for our native progres- 
siveness, we could hardly be credited with beating the 
Germans so tremendously in this international filth contest. 
In the separator slime are to be found, in addition to the 
cheesy matter from milk, manure, fodder, hairs, particles of 
skin, insects, down from birds, threads from clothing, bits of 
bedding, cobwebs, bristles, soil, etc., and large quantities of 
germs. The slime forms from .04 to. 3 of i percent, of the 
weight of the new milk, depending upon its original state of 
cleanliness. The use of the separator is superior to all 
other methods of obtaining cream on account of its power 
to more rapidly and thoroughly extract fat from milk. Thus 
it shortens the period for growth of germs permitted by the 



MILK PRODUCTS 35 

older methods of creaming, and — to some extent — removes 
germs already present in the milk. The cream, however, 
will be found to contain as many or more germs as the milk 
did before separation, although the skim milk leaving the 
separator may show one-third to one-half less germs in 
pretty clean milk, but in filthy milk the number of germs 
after separation is practically unaltered/'' Cream, after sep- 
aration, must therefore be rapidly cooled down from the 
high temperature of separation (86^^ F.) to 40° F. in order 
to prevent the growth of germs which have not been 
removed to any great degree by the process. 

The use of the separator to free milk of germs is not 
a success, although this method has been practiced in large 
cities to cleanse milk. 

None of the disease germs occasionally present in milk 
is certainly removed by separation. When used to cleanse 
milk the separator is run at a comparatively low speed so as 
not to separate the cream from the milk, but sufficient to 
remove much of the filth and therefore the so-called animal 
odor. Although there maybe an improvement in the flavor 
and odor of the milk, it will not keep any longer, showing 
that germs are not removed. Filtering milk by various 
devices has about the same value. 

The filth and dirt are removed more or less completely, 
and the taste and odor improved thereby, but the essential 
contamination — the germs — are not removed. For, as Prof. 
Conn has pointed out, the germs are so minute and so much 
smaller than the fat globules that it would be necessary to 
employ a filter which would remove all the fat in the milk 
in order to catch the grerms in the filter. 

"•■■ Recent experiments show thai of the germs present in whole milk before 
separation, 47 per cent, appear in slime, 29 per cent, in milk and 24 per cent, in 
creani after separation. — Eckles & Barnes, Iowa Sta. Bull., 1902. 



o 



6 CLEAN MILK 



Complete separation of milk into cream and skim milk 
is sometimes done for cleansing purposes, the skim milk 
and cream being reunited. Many physicians believe that 
milk thus treated is often the cause of indigrestion in infants. 

Neither these nor any other methods will make dirty 
milk clean. 

Contamination of milk begins at the farm, and only at 
the farm can it be eradicated. Absolute cleanliness with 
respect to milking and everything which comes in contact 
with the milk, together with immediate cooling to 50"^ F. or 
below, will alone insure success. The importance of germs. 
in relation to milk is as great as to the operatmg surgeon, 
and the amazing progress in both surgery and dairying is 
due chiefly to the appreciation of this fact. 

Exclusive of fat, the percentage of the other constitu- 
ents of milk — proteids, sugar and mineral matters — is 
about the same in cream as in milk, unless the cream be of 
unusual richness. For the same reason, the composition 
of skim milk is about the same as whole milk, the fat 
excepted. The fat is practically absent from separator 
skim milk and is present in skim milk, from which the cream 
has been removed by hand, to the extent of one-half to one, 
or even one and one-half per cent. The following tables, 
illustrate these statements : 

Composition Composition Composition Composition 
of Milk of 2()^ Cream of 25^ Cream of 67^ Cream 

Per Cent. Per Cent. Per Cent. Per Cent. 

Fat 4.00 20.00 25.00 67.00 

Sugar 4.50 48 4.8 22 

Proteids 3.5 3.05 3.2 1.2 

Mineral matters. 0.7 0.6 0.7 01 

Composition of Composition of 

Hand-skimmed Milk Separator Skim Milk 

Per Cent. Per Cent. Per Cent. 

Fat 075 012 to 0.1 

(hand) (power) 



MILK PRODUCTS 37 

The cream from set-milk contains 90 to 99 per cent, of 
the germs which were present in the whole milk, because in 
rising the fat globules entangle the germs and carry them 
along to the surface. These germs are chiefly made up of 
the varieties which cause the souring of milk or cream 
(lactic acid bacilli), and these increase for forty-eight hours 
at favorable temperatures — 60'^ to 70^^ F. — in cream, and 
then gradually die out, owing to the unfavorable influence 
of the acid formed in sourinor so that in a week few remain. 
Duringf the first few hours there are to be found a orreat 
variety of germs in milk and cream, but the lactic acid 
bacilli crowd these out, because they grow so much more 
readily than do the other kinds of germs, and at the end of 
forty-eight hours there may be as many as 500,000,000 
lactic acid germs to the quarter teaspoonful. Butter is com- 
monly made from cream which has " ripened." By ripening 
is meant the changes which occur in cream owing to the 
growth of germs in it during the process of souring. 

The ripening of cream may be compared to the change 
which takes place in grape juice when it turns to wine. 
Both changes — in the grape juice and cream — are brought 
about by fermentation, and fermentation is simply a term 
for describing the changes — chemical and physical — which 
occur in a substance owing- to the action of germs and their 
products upon it. 

In the ripening or fermentation of cream the germs 
alter the character of the cream and supply bodies which 
give to the butter its peculiar flavor and improve its keep- 
ing qualities. Butter made from fresh cream has less flavor 
and does not keep well. The sour milk germs give butter 
part of its flavor, but the miscellaneous germs which are 
crowded out by the former also are responsible for much of 



38 CLEAN MILK 

the flavor. In this country the popular palate requires a 
much stronger flavored butter than the European taste, 
which regards our butter as rank in flavor. Therefore 
abroad it is often customary to pasteurize fresh cream to 
kill the miscellaneous trerms and add the sour milk eerms 
in the form of a " starter," thus orettinsf a butter made from 
ripened cream, but avoiding the stronger flavor caused by 
the miscellaneous germs. The flavor and aroma of butter, 
then, depend upon the varieties of germs in cream. Butter 
is thought to possess the finest flavor in May and June 
because at this season the greatest variety of germs flourish 
in the milk. 

The chief reason why butter is so much better from 
certain dairies than others is because the better dairies are 
the homes of special kinds of germs, which give butter a 
good flavor and aroma, while in the others — owing to want 
of cleanliness of the cows, barns, milk rooms, employees or 
utensils — special germs of filth which are unfavorable to 
good dairy products come to occupy the premises. 

The action of the germs is, then, the essential factor in 
the production of good butter, as in all other departments 
of dairying. As we have pointed out, the lactic acid germs, 
while in the minority in the milk just drawn from the cow, 
soon gain ascendancy by multiplying in milk or cream, and 
it is to this type of germ that the ripening of butter and of 
cheese is chiefly due. 

We have also shown that, to the miscellaneous germs 
in milk and cream, butter also owes some of its flavor. But 
as some of these are deleterious to flavor and aroma, and 
are not to be depended upon, the endeavor has been made 
to employ only the lactic acid bacilli to ripen cream. These 
are present in pure culture ; that is, they form the only type 



MILK PRODUCTS 39 

of germ in the commercial starters, which may be bought 
in market in various shapes, as bottles of milk, pastes, pow- 
ders and pellets, all merely vehicles for the growth and 
preservation of lactic acid germs. This starter is added to 
fresh cream to ripen it. If the cream is already sour it is 
useless to add a starter. It is best to first heat cream 
to 155*^ F., to destroy the miscellaneous germs, before add- 
ing the starter containing the lactic acid germs, but in this 
country, where the added flavor caused by the miscellaneous 
germs is desired, the starter is more commonly added to 
fresh cream. The starters which were first used consisted 
simply of a quantity of sour milk or cream containing a 
great number of germs, suitable for ripening cream, which 
was added to fresh cream to quickly sour and ripen it, espe- 
cially in cold weather. These are called natural starters, 
and are still used extensively. To prepare such a starter 
the milk is withdrawn from the cow in the most cleanly 
manner ; the milk is then separated and the skim milk is 
collected in an absolutely clean vessel and set aside at a 
temperature of 60*^ to 70^ F. to sour. This sour milk may 
contain all sorts of germs, but if it is clean there are 
apt to be few miscellaneous germs and these are likely 
to be crowded out by the growth of the lactic acid germs, 
so that the result may be almost as pure a culture or collec- 
tion of lactic acid bacilli as is found in the commercial 
starters. We quote the following from Farrington : 

The foundation material for both kinds of starters is usually skim milk. 
This is first freed from most of its bacteria by heating it to 180 deg. F. or 
above, for at least one-half an hour. It is a good plan to keep this hot milk well 
stirred and covered while it is being heated. After this period of heating, the 
skim milk is cooled. The cooling is usually done by setting the can of hot 
skim milk into cold water. The quicker it is cooled the better. When the 
temperature of the skim milk reaches 80 deg. F., it is then in condition to 



40 CLEAN MILK 

receive either tlie pure culture which has been bought from the dealer, or the 
sour milk which has been selected and allowed to sour naturally. 

The so-called commercial starters are made by adding to about a gallon 
of this skim milk a small quantity (about an ounce) of the pure culture which 
has been bought from a dealer in this material. After the pure culture has been 
added to the skim milk the mixture is kept at a temperature of about 80 deg. 
F, until the skim milk has become soured by the pure culture bacteria. This 
preparation is sometimes called " startolene," and it may amount to about 
four quarts of sour milk. This is added to a larger quantity of pasteurized 
skim milk, which has been prepared by heating and cooling as previously 
described, and the mixture is allowed to stand at a temperature near 80 deg. 
until it becomes sour and has an acidity of about six-tenths of one per cent.* 
If the cream in which the starter is to be used is now ready, the starter may be 
added to it in about the proportion often pounds of starter to one hundred 
pounds of cream. A small quantity of this starter is saved each day and added 
to a new lot of pasteurized skim milk. In this way the starter is carried on 
from day to day and a new lot for use in ripening cream is prepared every day. 

The natural starter is made in exactly the same way as the commercial 
starter, except that in place of the ounce of pure culture which is bought from 
a dealer, a small quantity of selected sour milk is added to the pasteurized 
skim milk. The starter is then built up from this mixture as before described. 

This in general is an outline of the methods used for making cream 
ripening starters. The successful handling of starters depends entirely on the 
carefulness with which the skim milk is pasteurized and the skill used in pro- 
tecting the starter from outside contamination by dust, dirty cans, etc. In 
some cases the butter maker often goes so far as to wash his hands before 
handling his starter. These refining precautions used to protect the pure cul- 
ture and the starter from contamination are very important. 

If the starter does not give satisfactory results, it is best to throw it awav 
and begin a new one ; but, when once obtained, a good starter should be 
propagated from day to day as long as possible, and the length of time which 
it may be kept pure depends on the care with which it is made from 
day to day. 

It is always better to seed a new lot of pasteurized skim milk with a por- 
tion of fresh starter taken out just before it is poured into the cream, than to 
attempt to propagate a new starter every day by means of buttermilk obtained 
from a churning of cream in which the starter was used. A buttermilk starter 
may often give good results ; but, as a rule, it cannot be depended on, because 
some unpleasant flavors may develop in the cream during its ripening. These, 
of course, are carried into the battermilk, and when this is used for making 
the next starter, the unpleasant flavors may be continued in the butter from 
day to day. 

* See page 



• MILK PRODUCTS 41 

One of the important elements in starter making is the ability to detect 
a satisfactory starter when it is made. A person with a keen sense of smell 
and taste is able by inspection to select a good starter and know that it will 
})roduce good results, while other persons, without this ability, are unable to 
accurately judge between two different starters and they may keep on using a 
poor one day after day without noticing it. This faculty of judging starters 
may be cultivated by practice, and the butter maker who is most successful in 
training himself to detect a good starter, and a poor one as well, will be the 
most successful in making butter of a fancy grade. 

The commercial starters are more expensive, but uni- 
form, certain and convenient ; while the natural starter costs 
little or nothing and is less uniform but generally success- 
ful. Both are in common use. 

Butter made from ripened cream, besides having more 
flavor, aroma and better keeping qualities, is more readily 
churned and can be obtained in somewhat larger quantities 
than from fresh cream. Butter made from fresh cream 
is preferred by many persons and, perhaps it may be 
said, by those with the most refined taste. However, the 
market for such butter is limited and it must be sold imme- 
diately it is made. Fresh separated cream is much more 
readily churned than gravity cream. 

Cheese is made from the curd (casein or cheesy por- 
tion) of milk obtained by souring milk or by curdling it 
with rennet, chiefly by the latter method. The whey is 
removed in different ways. In soft cheese, as Brie or Cam- 
embert, the whey is merely permitted to drain naturally 
from the curd. The whey being not all removed, soft 
cheeses keep poorly. 

In the case of hard cheeses, the curd is cut up, and 
sometimes heated to i io° F. to toughen it, and pressed for 
days. Both soft and hard cheeses must ripen, which pro- 
cess takes days or months. The lactic acid germs are 
those chiefly instrumental in ripening hard cheeses, while 



42 CLEAN MILK 

molds and miscellaneous germs ripen the soft cheeses. In 
ripening, the various flavors characteristic of the special 
cheese are developed through the action of chemical pro- 
ducts formed by the growth of these vegetable parasites or 
germs. In addition, the cheese becomes softened, and 
therefore easier of digestion throuofh the action of a ferment 
natural to milk, resemblinij rennet, the latter beincr a secre- 
tion of the animal stomach. 

How important is t]ie influence of special varieties of 
germs in the successful making of cheese may be appre- 
ciated from the fact that it is a practice to smear shelves and 
walls of new factories with fresh cheese (as Brie and Lim- 
burger) to convey to them the special germs necessary 
to produce the flavor and characteristics of the cheeses 
which it is desired to make. A starter is often added to 
milk from which American cheese is to be made. As in the 
case of cream for butter, the addition of the lactic acid germs 
tends to crowd out miscellaneous and undesirable orermsand 
give a more certainly uniform product. The commercial 
starters are most reliable for the ripening of cheese, as for 
butter. As a general practice, milk cannot be pasteurized 
to kill the undesirable germs before adding the starter, when 
cheese is to be made, because heating the milk destroys the 
ferment in it which assists in ripening cheese, and heated 
milk does not curd so well with rennet. Certain of the sour 
milk, and of the soft and hard cheeses are, however, made 
successfully from pasteurized milk or cream to which is 
added a starter. 

If cheeses made from unpasteurized milk, to which 
starters containing lactic acid germs have been added, are 
ripened in low-temperature cellars, the miscellaneous germs 
are not Hkely to develop. 



MILK PRODUCTS 43 

The chemical composition of buttermilk and whey, bye 
products in the manufacture of butter and cheese, is given 
below. 

Buttermilk is usually sour from lactic acid, while the 
proteids are more digestible than in ordinary milk because 
existing in a flaky form.* 

Whey possesses but slight food value, containing only 
the ash, sugar and albumin of milk. It is sometimes the 
only food, when combined with a little cream, which infants 
with delicate digestion can tolerate. 

We also append a table showing the composition of 
butter. 

Buttermilk Whey Butter 

Percent. Per Cent, Per Cent, 

Proteids 4.06 0.81 i.oo 

Fat 0.93 0.36 84.00 

Sugar aud Ash 4.40 5.71 3,00 

Good cheese contains about -^t^ per cent, each of pro- 
teids and fat, and possesses two to three times the food 
value of meat, providing it is well digested, as It Is more apt 
to be if cooked with macaroni or vegetables. 

Skim Milk 

Skim milk forms a valuable food for man or beast, 
especially for calves and pigs. The milk should be fed young 
animals sweet, and warmed to the temperature of the body, 
when it possesses about one half the value of whole milk for 
food. The use of the hand separator at the farm will often 
be found lucrative, for the reason that the skim milk may 
then be obtained warm and fresh for calves or pigs and the 
cream bring as large a price as the whole milk, while retain- 
ing the most valuable element — the nitrogen in the proteids 

* Quite recently the advantages of concentrated and preserved buttermilk 
have been advocated. Its use will probably become much extended in time. Also 
an innovation is buttermilk made from clean skim milk. This should be set at 
700-800 F. to clabber when it is churned and until the casein is in a finely divided 
state and immediatel)^ cooled to below 500 F. and sold within 24 hours. A pasteu- 
rized skim milk may be used. There is a great field for absolutely clean butter- 
milk thus made for consumption in cities. 



44 CLEAN MILK 

of the milk — on the farm. This because the nitrogen is 
returned to the soil in manure. For man, skim milk, through 
its proteids, is said to be three times as cheap as meat, 
though a much more bulky food. If the skim milk is 
returned from the creamery for feeding, it is best that it be 
first pasteurized to kill any germs of tuberculosis which may 
be contained in it and to prevent souring. Calves should 
be permitted to suck the first three days of their existence, 
and then may be given whole and skimmed milk for ten 
days, gradually reducing the whole milk. After that time 
they may be given only skim milk, five to six quarts daily 
in three feedings for the first two weeks. At the end of this 
time five pints of skim milk may be fed twice daily with a 
tablespoonful of flaxseed or Indian meal to supply the defi- 
ciency of fat in the food. A liking for corn meal may be 
encouraged by placing a little on the tongue after feeding 
milk. Skim milk is fed pigs in the proportion of three 
pounds to one of corn meal ; to fowls, also, with grain. The 
utensils and troughs in which the skim milk is fed to young 
animals should be kept scrupulously clean, and the milk 
should not be fed sour. 

Bye-Products 

In speaking of milk products the bye-products of milk 
are used to an extent in the arts but little appreciated. 
This has recently been brought out in an address at Chicago 
by Dr. Nowak, the inventor of a process for using skim 
milk in the tannin qt- of leather. The curd or casein of skim 
milk is the essential part of the milk employed for the 
following manufactures : 

For sizinof straw and felt hats ; for making and Hazinor 
paper; for glazing and finishing leather; finishing and 



MILK PRODUCTS 45 

sizing silk, cotton, woolen and linen goods ; for making 
wall paper, roofing paper and linoleum. Also, casein is an 
important ingredient of cements, glues, putty, woodfillers, 
paints (especially dry paints), imitation ivory for balls, and 
buttons, etc. 

Some of the most lasting of the old Roman structures 
were made from a mixture of milk, lime and sand, and the 
most celebrated old mural decorations of Europe from 
casein mixed with color. 



CHAPTER IV 



FEEDING FOR MILK 



IN feeding cows for milk the most essential fact to grasp 
is that the composition of milk can not be altered to any 
extent by feeding. The solids may be increased slightl)^ 
by a food very rich in protein, or, on the other hand, the solids 
may be lessened, if the diet is very watery, but the percent- 
age of fat, .-ugar and proteids in the milk is not affected to 
any degree by different kinds of foodstuffs. One often 
reads of the marked influence of a change of food in increas- 
ing, or otherwise, the percentage of fat in the milk. But, 
while a sudden change in the ration may produce a corre- 
sponding alteration in the percentage of fat in the milk, it 
will be found only a temporary matter. The single excep- 
tion to the rule that the composition of milk is not changed 
by feeding is when the animals are not in a normal condition. 
If an animal has not enough food to be maintained in a nor- 
mal condition, there may be a disturbance of the functions 
of the udder, as of any other function in the body, and 
therefore alteration in the composition of the milk. 

Milk is formed by the constant breaking down of the 
substance of the cells of the udder into the proteids, fat, and 
perhaps to some extent the sugar, of milk. This process is 
followed by a rapid rebuilding of the udder cells. The con- 
stituents of the food of cows are not transformed directly 
into milk, but are altered and absorbed into the blood and 



46 



FEEDING FOR MILK 47 

serve only to build the cells of the udder, as they do any 
other part of the body. The quality of the milk from any 
cow depends upon the natural characteristics of the cells of 
the udder ; the quantity of milk depends on the capacity 
for rapid cell-building and, to a degree, upon the size of 
the udder. The cells of the udder being made of a sub- 
stance similar chemically to the proteids of the milk, there 
must be an abundance of protein in the food to constantly 
rebuild these cells as they liquefy into milk. Indeed, the 
proportion of protein in the food has to be higher in feeding 
for milk than for any other purpose. This proportion has 
been determined by experience and experiments (see 
Wolff's table below). 

While it is possible to secure the proper proportion of 
protein by the use of the greatest variety of fodders, the 
special foodstuffs which may be employed in any given case 
should be determined chiefly by the local cost of special fod- 
ders and the price of milk. 

The richer a food in protein the more costly is it, and, 
if the price of milk is low, it may not pay to increase the 
amount of proteids in the food sufficiently to attain to the 
maximum milk-yield. A food rich in protein tends to sus- 
tain the period of lactation and keep up the flow of milk — 
which is ordinarily greatest soon after calving — for a con- 
siderable period. In case of large milkers which receive an 
insufficient supply of protein, the proteids of the tissues of 
the body are called upon to make up for the loss of protein 
in the formation of milk from the udder cells, and the ani- 
mal rapidly loses flesh. 

Notwithstanding the fact that the composition of milk 
can not be materially altered by feeding under ordinary cir- 
cumstances, yet by good feeding and breeding (taking 



48 CLEAN MILK 

advantage of increased fat yield in milk through careful 
selection), it has been found possible in several generations 
to produce an animal giving milk one per cent, richer than 
that common to its breed. This has been accomplished by 
some in the case of the Holsteins. 

Wolff's original feeding standard for milk cows, per 
day and i,ooo pounds live weight, is as follows : 

Pounds 

Digestible protein 2.5 

" fat 0.4 

" carbohydrates 12.5 

Total dry matter 24. 

Nutritive ratio i to 5.4 

The nutritive ratio means the proportion of nitrogen- 
ous to non-nitrogenous constituents of the food. The pro- 
tein represents the nitrogenous, and the fat and carbohy- 
drates together represent the non-nitrogenous nutrients, as 
the food constituents are called. But to put fat on the same 
basis as carbohydrates, in calculating the nutritive ratio, the 
percentage of digestible fat is multiplied by 2.5 and the 
result is added to the total of digestible carbohydrates. The 
reason for this is because fat is thought to have two and 
one-half times the food value of carbohydrates, since a given 
weight of fat produces two and one-half times as much heat 
in burning as carbohydrates. This method of reasoning is 
realized, however, to be very imperfect. In books* on 
cattle feeding tables showing the composition of foodstuffs 
may be found. The carbohydrates are found under the 
headings Crude Fibre and Nitrogen-Free Extract. There 
are other tables showing the percentage of digestibility 
of the fat, protein, crude fibre and nitrogen-free extract 
^n the various fodders. 



*Armsby's "Manual of Cattle Feeding." 



FEEDING FOR MILK 49 

By multiplying the amount of any of these constituents 
in any given fodder by the percentage of the constituent 
digestible, we get the quantity of the digestible constituent 
in the fodder. Thus, if we look at a table showingr the com- 
position of hay : Average hay we find contains in the 100 
lbs. as follows : 9 lbs. protein, 2 lbs. fat, 43 lbs. nitrogen- 
free extract, and 26 lbs. crude fibre. To find the digesti- 
bility of these nutrients we look in another table and there 
discover that 46 per cent, of the fat in hay is digestible, 57 per 
cent, of the protein, and that the total amount of nitrogen- 
free extract in a coarse fodder represents the total quantity 
of digestible carbohydrates it contains. So in our 100 lbs. 
of hay we calculate that there are 5.13 lbs. of digestible pro- 
tein (multiply 9X-57)5 ^"^^ ^-Q^ lbs. of fat (multiply 
2 X -46) and 43 lbs. of carbohydrates digestible. 

When we can not figure the amount of nitrogen-free 
extract as equal to the total digestible carbohydrates, as we 
do for convenience in a coarse fodder, we find the amounts 
of digestible crude fibre and nitrogen-free extract in the 
tables and add them together to represent the total digestible 
carbohydrate in the foodstuff. Fat is often spoken of as 
ether extract by some writers. It is not necessary, of course, 
to try to secure a ration which shall be the exact chemical 
counterpart of Wolff's table above, but only to approach it 
as nearly as may be, especially in the matter of protein. 
The general idea should be to take the foodstuffs at hand 
and look up the amounts of digestible nutrients* they con- 
tain and combine them in the proper proportions as indi- 
cated by Wolff's table. Proteinf is an expensive food con- 



*Armsby's " Manual of Cattle Feeding." 

t In cattle foods protein costs, by weight, twice as much as carbohydrates and 
about one-half as much as fat, but there is ordinarily enough fat in a ration. 



50 



CLEAN MILK 



stituent of nutrient, and it should be fed in the cheapest 
form of fodder available in the locality. The best manner 
of feeding is to weigh out the food necessary for the whole 
number of cows at one feeding and distribute the amount to 
each cow in proportion to her weight, secretion of milk, etc. 
Professor Haecker's work on cattle feeding teaches that the 
daily quantity of nutrients should be proportioned to the 
amount and richness of daily milk-yield as displayed in the 
followinor table :* 



FOR cows WEIGHING 1 ,000 POUNDS 
Milk-Yield Digestible Nutrients Required 



Daily Amount 


Testing in Fat 


Protein 


Carbohydrates Fat 


lbs. 


per cent. 


lbs. 


lbs. lbs. 




\^ 


1. 10 


8.81 


24 


lo 


w 


1. 17 


9.14 


26 




1.24 


9-47 


28 




^3 


1.50 


10.62 


37 


20 


\\ 


1.63 


11.28 


42 




1.78 


11.94 


47 






1.90 


12.43 


51 


30 


2.10 


13-42 


58 




2.30 


14.41 


65 




\^ 


2 30 


14.24 


65 


40 


14 


2..S7 


15-56 


74 




(5 


2.85 


16.88 


83 




\^ 


2.70 


16.05 


68 


5c 


\\ 


304 


17 70 


90 




3-39 


19-35 I 


01 




j^ 


3.10 


17.86 


92 


60 


350 


19.84 I 


06 




(5 


3-92 


2 r . 76 I 


19 




\^ 


3-50 


19 67 I 


05 


70 


w 


4.00 


21.98 I 


22 




4.46 


23.82 I 


36 



In practice it may also be broadly stated that there 
should be a certain proportion of coarse fodder, or rough- 
age, to the more concentrated foodstuffs, as grain and bye- 
products. Haecker's rule giving one pound of concentrated 
food for every three pounds of milk yield, affords a very 
useful basis for calculating- a ration. 



*This table and following rations were selected at random from Hoard's 
Dairyman. 



FEEDING FOR MILK 51 

Thus, for a daily ration, 20 to 40 lbs, of roughage, 
including hay, silage, stover, etc., may be fed with about 
8 lbs. of concentrates (consisting preferably of a mixture of 
a variety of grains) to a cow of average size and giving 
about 25 lbs. of milk daily. To cows giving daily 35 lbs. of 
milk, 10 lbs. of concentrates are suitable, and if the milk 
contains 5 per cent, of fat, 12 lbs. may be fed. The great 
milkers are often fed 30 to 40 lbs. of roughage with 15 to 
16 lbs. of a grain mixture daily. 

Some such rations as the following may be used for 
milk cows of average weight and giving about 25 pounds 
of 4 per cent, milk : 

Roughage, 20 lbs, of timothy hay, with a mixture of 
oats, 2 lbs.; bran, 4 lbs.; and gluten, 4 lbs. This contains 
as follows : Dry matter, 26.3 lbs.; digestible nutrients — pro- 
tein, 2.18 lbs.; carbohydrates, J 3.09 lbs.; fat, 0.58 lbs. 

Roughage, 20 lbs. of timothy and clover hay, with a 
mixture of oats, 4 lbs.; barley, 3 Lbs.; and oil meal, i lb. 
This is equivalent to: Dry matter, 24.3 lbs.; digestible 
nutrients — protein, 1.88 lbs.; carbohydrates, 12. i lbs.; fat, 
0.6 lbs. 

Roughage, 30 lbs. of ensilage and 10 lbs. of clover hay, 
with a mixture af barley, 4 lbs., and bran, 4 lbs. This 
ration is equivalent to: Dry matter, 25.5 lbs.; digestible 
nutrients — protein, 1..92 lbs.; carbohydrates, 11.92 lbs.; fat, 
0.56 lbs. 

Roughage, ensilage, 30 lbs., and oat hay, 30 lbs.; with 
mixture of ground rye, 4 lbs., and gluten feed, 4 lbs. This 
feed is equivalent to : Dry matter, 23.56 lbs.; digestible 
nutrients — protein, 2.08 lbs.; carbohydrates, 13.32 lbs.; fat, 
o 54 lbs. 

It will be seen that the protein is a little low in all 



52 CLEAN MILK 

these rations.* Cottonseed (or linseed) meal is one of the 
richest foodstuffs in protein we possess, and may be added 
to advantage to bring up the proportion of protein in the 
ration, as one pound of the meal is equivalent to about 
one-third pound of digestible protein. Not more than two 
to three pounds daily of cottonseed meal should be fed, 
however, on account of its poor digestibility in considerable 
amounts, and because in excess it may render milk unfit for 
use as an infant food. 

The following mixtures of concentrates may be em- 
ployed with an appropriate amount of roughage (if hay is. 
used, as much may be given as the cow will eat without 
waste) as daily rations for an average cow : 

Bran, 4 lbs.; corn chop, 3 lbs.; oil meal, i lb. Or, 2 parts 
bran ; 2 parts ground oats ; 2 parts gluten, and i part oil 
meal, giving 8 lbs. of the mixture daily. Or, 4 lbs. oats ; 
3 lbs. bran ; i lb. oil meal. Or, 4 lbs. of bran and 4 lbs. of 
oats ; or, a mixture by weight of bran, 3 parts ; gluten feed, 
2 parts ; corn chop, 2 parts ; and oil meal, i part, giving 8 
to 10 lbs. daily. A ration having the proper proportion of 
nitrogenous to non-nitrogenous nutrients, or, in other words, 
the proper nutritive ratio according to Wolff, is now called 
a balanced ration. Oil meal is linseed meal. The exact 
amount of fat in the daily ration is not of much moment, 
but we should endeavor to approximate Wolff's feeding 
standard with the more recent modification (page 50) of 
adjusting the ration somewhat to the quantity and richness 
of the milk-yield. An amount of salt equal to one tea- 
spoonful should be given with the feed of each cow twice 
daily. 



* That is according to Wolff's standard of fifty years ago, but these rations, 
are calculated from the table to be found on page 50. 



FEEDING FOR MILK ^3 

Cows may be watered to advantage twice daily; once 
before they are turned out for pasture or airing, in the 
mornino; and agfain before the evenine feeding. 

The matter of a pure water supply in the pasture, farm 
and dairy is of great significance. This is the case, not 
because the milk is contaminated by germs or poisons swal- 
lowed by the cow in impure water, but because the cow's 
udders become contaminated from wading in impure water. 
The dairy utensils may likewise be contaminated by wash- 
ing them in an infected water supply containing the germs 
of typhoid fever or dysentery. The presence of pools of 
water in pastures which in any way can be polluted with 
human excrement or urine should be Jxvoided. Germs or 
microorganisms existing in stagnant pools in pastures may 
impart a fishy taste to milk when such water is wallowed in 
or swallowed by cows. Water'" for cattle and for dairy pur- 
poses is best obtained from a public water supply of known 
jDurity, but when this is not possible a spring, away from 
sources of pollution, or a driven well, may afford excellent 
water. The neighborhood of a privy or manure pile should 
always be shunned, and surface drainage of any kind should 
be prevented from entering the well. Below the depth of 
of three and one-half feet germs do not live in the soil. 
Where there is any doubt — and some doubt must always exist 
concerning open wells and those situated near dwellings — 
a half gallon of the water should be submitted to a compe- 
tent chemist for analysis. Wells must be free of all solid 
objects, even stones, and water containing over 300 germs 
to the cubic centimeter is unfit for dairy purposes. 

The kind of food and manner of feeding cows has an 

* Cows do not like very cold water. Avoid giving it to them when 

1' . si'.j c. 



54 



CLEAN MILK 



influence upon milk which is of much importance, especially 
when the milk is to be used by infants. 

Many chemical substances in the food are eliminated 
— either changed or unchanged — in the milk, and may 
impart to it an unnatural odor, taste or appearance, and 
may render It unfit for food. A sudden change from dry 
fodder to grass, or any other green food in considerable 
amount, is apt to give rise to milk which will cause digestive 
troubles in babies. 

Fresh corn fodder in considerable quantity, when fed 
to cows, will often render the milk harmful to infants. 
While roots and ensilage are commonly said to produce a 
milk which will disagree with infants, yet I believe these are 
harmless when fed in moderate quantities and after milking. 

Silage should not be given in a greater amount than 
twenty pounds daily, and not more than two pounds of oil 
meal should be fed, when the milk is especially intended for 
infants' use. The feeding of spoiled, moldy ensilage, and 
remnants of ensilage which have been allowed to accumu- 
late about the barn, are chiefly responsible for the harm 
this foodstuff inflicts upon milk. In fact, some authorities 
say that a ration of under 40 lbs. daily per cow is not 
damaging to milk. Some of the largest buyers of milk 
in the United States, however, refuse milk from ensilage- 
fed cows, and those versed in the use of milk for baby 
feeding find that a small feed of ensilage is safer. Grass, 
hay, clover and grains constitute the best food for cows 
supplying milk for use by babies. 

The time of feeding- is a matter of great moment. In 
general, it may be said that milk cows should only be fed 
after milking to avoid dust in the barn, and fodder, when 
given at this time — as mangolds, turnips, rutabagas, carrots 



FEEDING FOR MILK 55 

or their tops — will not impart a bad odor or taste to the milk. 
It is not necessary to feed cows in order that they be quiet 
during milking ; they can soon be habituated to being fed 
after milkinor. Indeed, so orreat is the dang-er of dissemi- 
nating germs in the air when cows are fed before or during 
milking, that it is now recognized that when dry fodder is 
thus fed it is impossible to secure clean milk. Moreover, 
when hay is kept in mows open to the cow-barn, it is very 
difficult to produce clean milk. If feeding is done at milking 
time, it should only be moistened grain. 

There are certain pasture plants which are harmful to 
milk, and sometimes to human consumers of it. Amono- 
these are the following :. Poison ivy, poison oak, meadow 
saffron, Jamestown weed, sorrel, poisonous mushrooms, wild 
mustard, carrot tops, milkweed, sumach, henbane and skunk 
cabbage. The disease known as milk sickness, or trembles, 
which sometimes attacks man, and is exhibited by vomiting, 
great weakness and twitching of the muscles, is attributed 
to the drinking of milk from cows feeding on poison ivy. 
Meadow saffron consumed by cows may lead to severe 
diarrhoea in man drinking their milk. 

Milk is not of good quality for any purpose when the 
animals yielding it are fed upon swill, brewers' grains or 
food In a state of marked fermentation or putrefaction. 
Such milk may cause digestive disturbances in man — par- 
ticularly in babies— and the manure is very soft and stink- 
ing from cows eating fermented food, and splashes about, and 
is therefore more apt to soil the cow and milk. The milk 
produced with brewers' grain does not keep sweet so long 
as good milk should, neither are the cows consuming large 
quantities of it long-lived. The use of this food is now 
prohibited by law in most cities. Dried brewers' and 



56 CLEAN MILK 

distillers' grains constitute wholesome food for cows. 
Moldy hay, straw or grain ; decayed leaves, salt hay, 
onions, garlic and cabbage may give to milk a bad odor or 
flavor. 

The expressed pulp from the sugar beet is inadvisable 
as a food for cows, because of its richness in potassium salts, 
which find their way into the milk and render it unfit food 
for human beincrs or animals. 

The milk of cows receivlnof drug^s is unsuitable for food, 
since many medicines are eliminated in the milk. Further- 
more, the milk of cows sick in any manner should be with- 
held from feeding purposes, as poisons in the blood or 
germs of disease may be conveyed to man or animals in the 
milk from the sick cow. The milk of cows underofoinsf the 
tuberculin test may be used as food unless the animal 
reacts to the test, when it should be permanently rejected 
for human consumption, or boiled before feeding it to 
animals. 



CHAPTER V 



HOUSING AND CARE OF COWS 



IN considering the practical, details concerned with the 
housing and care of cows, and the handling and mar- 
keting of milk, our object will be to emphasize the 
essentials required for the production of clean milk. 

Many different methods may be employed to attain the 
same end, but certain principles are essential. Ideal 
methods are unfortunately expensive, and the most approved 
appointments of the modern stable and dairy rival those of 
the surgeon's operating room in elaborateness and cost. 
Nevertheless, milk which will fulfil all the requirements 
necessary for " certification " can be produced by care and 
cleanliness in an ordinary stable, and without any great out- 
lay for plant. 

The Barn 

The essentials are that it shall be clean, light, airy, free 
from dust, flies and odors. In regard to the air space in a 
barn, this Is a matter which depend'^ wholly on the ventila- 
tion. When the ventilation Is good, 500 cubic feet of air 
per cow Is sufficient, as the air is In constant movement. 
The number of cubic feet of air, rather than air. space, is 
the Important matter. The King system for stables is that 
commonly used, the principle being to secure a current of 
air traveling at the rate of 200 to 500 cubic feet per minute 
through the barn. 

57 



58 CLEAN MILK 

The animal's heat is used to aid the movement of air. 
If the stable is too high, the animal-heat will be lost, so that 
in cold climates a height of 8 feet is sufficient, while a good 
width for a stable is 36 feet. The cows are to be placed 
in two rows running the length of the stable, and either 
facino" each other or toward the outside of the buildinof. 
There is much disagreement as to which arrangement is the 
better. If the cows face outward, there should be feeding 
alleys in front of them at least 6 feet wide, while the central 
aisle in the barn behind them is used for removing manure. 
If the cows face inward, the central aisle between the rows 
of cows is used for feeding purposes. In either case an 
overhead railway is often used for removing manure from 
the centre aisle, when the cattle face outward, or for carry- 
ing feed when the animals face toward each other. The 
writer gives the preference to the plan of facing the cows 
towards the outside of the building. By this arrangement 
the cows get more air and light, and their breath does not 
comminofle. At the same time the manure can be more 
readily removed, which is more important than ease of 
feeding, for the production of clean milk. In the cow stall, 
the chief object should be to have an arrangement which 
keeps the cows wholly apart and does not cumber the floor 
so as to make places where dirt can collect. The best 
floors are of concrete, covered with cement, and made some- 
what rough, so that the cattle will not slip. Some com- 
petent dairy men cover the cement with movable wood 
flooring, under the cows, to prevent them from lying on 
this hard and cold substance. (See Appendix.) If not of 
cement, the floor should be of planed, matched planking, 
and the cracks filled in with tar. In case planking is used, 
it is best at any rate to have the gutters of cement. 



HOUSING AND CARE OF COWS 59 

To secure drainage of the floor of the stall, the rear 
half of it — that is, the half nearest the manure trench — 
should have a fall of two inches. The manure trench should 
be sixteen inches wide and about eight inches deep. 
The trench should have a fall for drainage, being, for 
instance, six inches deep at one end and ten inches deep 
at the other ; or, the whole floor of the stable may be 
made to slope, with the trench of the same depth from 
end to end. 

A number greater than forty cows is not desirable in 
one barn. There should be a continuous window space 
along each side of the barn. The windows may hinge from 
below, or be made to open and close as one, by means of a 
continuous rod. In cold climates, the sides of the barn mayi 
be built of two layers of inch, matched boards with a space 
of eight inches between, filled in with cut straw or sawdust. 
Besides this, building paper should be laid inside each layer 
of the boarding. The inner layer of boarding should be 
without beading and laid perpendicularly. The ceiling 
overhead should be perfectly tight. If it is composed of a 
double floor with building paper between, there is no reason 
why hay should not be kept overhead, providing it is 
brought down into a room separate from the main stable. 
There should be tightly-fitting double windows in winter 
in cold climates. The King ventilating system consists of 
numerous flues on all four sides of the building for the 
intake of air, 4x4 inches in diameter, and opening three or 
four feet below the ceiling outside the stable, and entering 
the stable just under the celling. These are furnished with 
sliding doors, or closed with an arrangement like a furnace 
register in a dwellln^f house. The outake for air should be 
only one for every twenty cows or less, being a shaft with 



6o CLEAN MILK 

openings — the same size as the shaft — at the floor and just 
below the ceiling. This shaft should be placed on the out- 
side of the centre of one side of the barn, and should be 
carried straight upward like a chimney, six feet higher than 
the top of the roof. 

The shaft or flue should be absolutely air-tight, and 
may be made of metal, or preferably of two layers of wood, 
with filling of sawdust or building paper between, and covered 
with a cap, to keep the rain out, one foot above the top. The 
openings near the floor and at the ceiling should be pro- 
vided with doors or dampers of some kind. The number 
of flues and size of flues are governed by the number of 
cows in the barn. Only one flue is necessary for the out- 
take of air when there are less than thirty cows in the barn. 



I flue I 


ft. 


sq 


uare 


for 


6 cows, 


I "1X2 


(( 




" 


" 


10 " 


I "2x2 


(( 




<( 


" 


20 " 


2 " 2X2 


<c 




<i 


(( 


40 " 



The movement of air in the ventilating system is 
brought about by the following forces : Wind pressure 
against the barn, forcing air into the building- • wind suction 
on leeward side, tending to suck air out ; wind blowing 
across top of ventilating shaft, tending to suck air out of it; 
by difference of temperature between the air inside and that 
outside the building. Thus air enters the intake near the 
ceiling and is distributed over the building-. The air at the 
bottom of the barn is the foulest, because carbonic acid gas 
exhaled by the animals is heavier than air. This air is also 
the coldest. In cold weather the bottom opening of the 
out-take shaft should be open, and the upper opening near 
the ceiling shut. The cold, foul air is then sucked from the 
floor of the barn up the flue into the outer air. In hot 



HOUSING AND CARE OF COWS 6 1 

weather the upper opening in the out-take flue may be 
opened, and the lower closed. This permits of escape of 
heated air from the stable, and may be done at any time to 
secure better ventilation, but at the expense of the animal 
heat. In order that the system work well, it is essential that 
every part of the barn be absolutely tight, with well-insu- 
lated walls to prevent chilling and condensation of moisture, 
as about ten pounds of water are eliminated daily from the 
lungs and skin of a cow. The doors leading outdoors 
should be double. There must be no leakage of air in or 
out anywhere, except through the ventilating system — even 
hay shutes must be closed, and no escape of air into the loft 
be permitted. It is not possible to state just how many in- 
take flues there should be, but it is better to have them 
numerous on each side of the barn, as they can easily be 
closed If necessary. 

It is feasible to sustain a pretty even temperature in a 
tightly built stable properly ventilated — somewhere between 
55° and 60° F. in cold weather. If the air is too hot, the 
. out-take flues are not sufficient ; if too much cold air rushes 
in, the Intakes should be closed to some extent, as there 
should be no considerable drafts when the system is work- 
ing properly. The intake flues are commonly built In the 
walls of the barn, and the out-take flues may also be so con- 
structed. In which case they are made of two layers of tight 
boarding with roofing paper between. 

Metal flues are not so advisable as wooden ones, be- 
cause moisture condenses more readily In them. The fol- 
lowing sketches of some barns ventilated by the King 
system are taken from King's " Physics of Agriculture," 
to which the author wishes to acknowledge his indebted- 
ness for some of the matter concerning ventilation pre- 



62 



CLEAN MILK 



sented above. Old stables can be remodeled with concrete 
floors, and later the ventilating system, with stuffed walls 
and tight ceilings, doors and windows, may be added. 

Sketch A shows two methods of ventilating a dairy 
barn. On the right (Fig. i) the ventilating flue D F rises 

Fig. I. 




r^ 



^ 




rvwB 



A 



.-^ 



E 



^ 



:v£ A 




tB-n 



Fig. 2. 




!5 t 



JV-^ 



■\-a 




Sketch A — Two methods of ventilating a dairy farm. 

straight from the floor, passing out through the roof and 
rising above the ridge. One, two or three of these would be 
used according to number of cattle. The flues should be at 
one or the other side of the cupola rather than behind it. 
On the left C E represents how a hay shoot may be used 



HOUSING AND CARE OF COWS 



63 



also for ventilatingr flue. In each of these cases the ven- 
tilating flue would take the place of one cow. This method 
would give the best ventilation but has the objection of 
occupying valuable space. C, in the feed shoot, is a door 
which swings out when hay is being thrown down, but is 
closed when used as a ventilator, the door not reaching 
quite to the floor. To take air Into this stable, if it. is built 
of wood with studding, openings would be left at A about 
4x12 inches every twelve or sixteen feet, and the air would 




Sketch B— Method of ventilating a lean-to stable. 

enter and rise between the sheathing of the inside and the 
siding on the outside, entering at B as represented by the 
arrows. Fig. 2 shows intakes through a brick wall. 

Sketch B shows a method of ventilating a lean-to 
stable. The air enters as represented by the arrows at 
A B and passes out through a flue built on the inside of the 
upright or main barn. This flue may rise directly through 
the roof or it may end at E as shown in the figure, the air 
passing through a cupola. If the upright barn has a balloon 
frame, then the space between the studding could be used 



64 



CLEAN MILK 



as ventilating flues. These flues could be made tighter 
by covering inside and out on the studding with the lightest 
galvanized iron. 

Sketch C shows a section of the cow stable of the dairy 
barn at the Wisconsin Experiment Station. A single 




Sketch C — Section of the cow stable of the dairy barn at the Wisconsin 
Experiment Station. 

ventilating flue D E rises above the roof of the main barn, 
and is divided below the roof into two arms A B D, which 
terminate at or near the level of the stable floor at A A. 
These openings are provided with ordinary registers, with 
valves to be opened and closed when desired. Two other 
ventilators are placed at B B, to be used when the stable is 



HOUSING AND CARE OF COWS 65 

too warm, but are provided with valves to be closed at other 
times. C is a direct 12-inch ventilator leading into the 
main shaft, and opening from the ceiling, so as to admit a 
current of warm air at all times to the main shaft to help 
force the draft. This ventilating shaft is made of galvanized 
iron, the upper portion being 3 feet in diameter. The 
covering on the outside is simply for architectural effect. 
G F show method of intake of air. 

Cow Stalls 

It is generally considered of advantage to be rid of 
stanchions and tie-ups of all kinds, and confine the cow in a 
stall giving entire freedom to the head. The partitions 
between the cows are made in the form of metal or wooden 
gates about five feet high, but not touching the floor. The 
cows are held in place also by a chain or rope fastened by 
snap hooks to the uprights at either side of the back of the 
stall, and in front there is a movable partition of metal or 
wood adjusted to the length of the cow, so as to keep her 
standing well back to the edo^e of the manure trench. The 
whole length of the stall is six feet to six feet eight inches, 
according to the length of the cow. The cow is fed off the 
floor, or from a gutter cut in cement inside of the front par- 
tition. Metal stalls are comparatively expensive. The 
chief object is to keep all of the stall structure off the floor, 
as far as may be, to have a clean floor-space free from 
nooks and crannies to harbor dirt and dust. The width of 
the cow stall varies between thirty-eight to forty-five inches, 
according to the size of the animals. The milker opens 
the gate of the stall just behind him when milking, which 
gives him more room and keeps the next cow away from his 
back. 



66 CLEAN MILK 

When the cows are let out the chains may be retained 
in place and the gates are opened. For details and illustra- 
tions of serviceable stable arrangements see Appendix. 

It is well to round up the cement floor to a point six 
inches or so up the wall of the stable. The urine should be 
drained into a tank, which can be emptied once or more 
daily, or be received into a regular drain with a trap.* 
Chains or ropes should be stretched lengthwise with the 
stable under the cows' necks to prevent them from lying 
down after grooming and before milking. The manure 
must be removed as soon as it falls,f except at milking time, 
and carried not less than several hundred feet from the 
barn, so as not to attract flies. Flies convey germs to the 
milk and annoy cattle. One fly falling into the milk pail is 
said to bring as many as 250,000 germs into the milk. 
Many of the preparations for spraying cows with the pur- 
pose of keeping off flies are of great service, and are widely 
advertised in the agricultural journals. Shutters are useful 
in hot weather to darken the stable and, with netting, 
aid to keep out flies. Water may be run in the feeding 
gutter of cement floors, before feeding time, or supplied in 
iron vessels raised from the floor. 

Before sweeping the barn floor it should be sprinkled 
to avoid dust, and neither sweeping nor removal of manure 
should be done within half an hour of milking — 'to prevent 
contamination of the air. While most of the germs in milk 
come from dirt on the cow, nevertheless there is also danger 
of contamination from dust in the barn. For this reason 
the most ideal vv^ay is to keep a barn, built with cement floors, 
entirely for milking purposes. The floors are sprinkled 
and the cows only driven in the building at milking time 

* If the urine can not be so removed it is well to have the gutters tight (with- 
out outlet) and use rotted sod, sawdust, or leaf mold to absorb the moisture and 
save the fertilizing properties of the urine. 

\ When this is not feasible, by using absorbents, as above, and occasionally 
sprinkling 5 per cent, creoliu solution in the gutters (if of wood), the stable may 
be kept clean. The manure should be taken out at least once daily. Sprink- 
ling wood ashes and slaked lime in the trenches daily after removal of manure, 
is of service. 



HOUSING AND CARE OF COWS €7 

and removed Immediately after. In the air of the ordinary 
barn germs are fifty per cent, more abundant, owing to the 
dust in the air, than in a school room at the close of the day. 

It is advisable to have a number of box stalls for sick 
animals, for cows about to have calf, and for calves. These 
had preferably be in a separate stable, because contao-ious 
diseases may thus be kept away from the rest of the herd, 
as contagious abortion, for instance. 

A milk receiving room in the stable is useful, in which 
the milk from separate cows may be weighed and recorded 
before the milk is carried to the milk room. (See Appendix, 
page 182.) 

The most suitable bedding for cows in the production 
of clean milk consists either of shavings from kiln dried 
lumber (which have, in the process of kiln drying, been ster- 
ilized), or sawdust, or straw. 

We have been laying down ideal rather than the 
essential requirements in the housing of cattle to secure 
clean milk. Suppose we take an ordinary barn. The hay 
is probably stored over the cows. If this is so, then either 
the hay must be removed, and also the ceiling over the 
cows, or the ceiling must be made dust-tight and the hay 
never removed before milking time, to avoid dust. It is 
probable that there are not enough windows. More win- 
dows, or, better, a continuous row of windows should be 
put in. There will be also probably unnecessary feed 
boxes which can not be readily cleaned, rubbish and imple- 
ments and dirt to be removed. 

Everything which may collect dust or dirt should be 
done away with. The whole premises then should be 
washed, swept and painted or w^hitewashed. The material 
sold in the form of a powder and known in the trade as 



68 CLEAN MILK 

Avater paint, and which is mixed with water by the user, is 
not much more expensive than whitewash and is infinitely 
better. The floors of the cow stalls must be smooth and 
tight, to be kept clean, and may be of matched wood — 
although the gutters are preferably of cement. The floor 
of the stall must not be too long or too short, so that the 
cow when up will just stand on the edge of the gutter. If 
the cows are of different breeds and sizes this may be regu- 
lated by arranging the ties at proper distances from the 
gutter. It is well to have a sufficient space behind the gut- 
ters, so that one can walk without being soiled with manure, 
five feet at least, and in some stables this space is made 
wide enough to drive a wagon for filling with manure. This, 
however, is not necessary, nor the best way to remove the 
manure, as it should not be allowed to collect at all. The 
gutters must be deep enough' (eight inches or more) to 
keep the cows clean when lying down, or may be made six 
inches deep at one end and ten inches at the other end of 
the barn to secure a fall for flushing them out with water. 
They should be made watertight. It Is well to keep land 
plaster or lime always in the gutters to .absorb odors. 
Extra ventilation may be added by installing the King sys- 
tem without great expense. 

Feeding should only be done after milking. A suffi- 
cient supply of hot and cold water and basins, soap and 
towels should be provided in a convenient place for the 
milkers to wash, and this may be used as a dressing room. 
No manure should be permitted to remain within several 
hundred feet of the barn, and the ground about the barn 
must be kept clear of rubbish, dirt and stagnant water, and 
sprinkled when very dusty. Children and cats and dogs 
must be excluded from the barn at milking time. 



HOUSING AND CARE OF COWS 69 

The essentials In relation to the stable, then, are : 
Sufficient pure air and light ; freedom from dust ; clean 
floors, gutters, walls and ceiliags ; and clean surroundings, 
free from manure and rubbish. 

Care of the Cows 

All cows should be tested with tuberculin before their 
milk is used for human consumption, either as raw milk or 
in the form of cream, butter or possibly even cheese. The 
germs of tuberculosis have been frequently found in milk, 
cream and butter. Those remarkable surgeons, the Mayos, 
of Rochester, Minn., have recently shown the large propor- 
tion of tuberculosis of the abdominal orcfans amonof their 
patients who come from the agricultural regions. The 
natural inference which they draw is that the source of 
the infection in these people must be from milk, since they 
are milk-users, and eenns enterinof the lunsfs in the air 
would cause tuberculosis of the lungs, or consumption.* 

The milk of cows which are being tested with tuber- 
culin may be used, providing that they do not react to 
the test. It is well, also, that a veterinary surgeon familiar 
with cattle examine each herd of cows twice a year. 

Cows with gargetf should be milked by one who does 
not milk the other cows, and animals about to calve should 
be kept apart from the herd. In view of the wonderfully 
successful results from the use of air for inflating the 
udders of cows suffering from milk fever, it will be wise for 



* Having caked udders or pus (slime) and blood in the milk. 

f In the light of most recent scientific studies and experiments tuberculosis in 
man appears to start more frequently in the digestive tract than was formerly 
supposed even when the disease is situated only in the lungs and other parts of 
the body. No cow should be placed in a herd until it has been tested and found 
free from tuberculosis. Such testing must be repeated once a year. One tuber- 
culous cow may infect the entire herd. 



70 CLEAN MILK 

the farmer to keep the simple apparatus on hand for prac- 
ticing the treatment. Every agricuhural paper advertises 
information for obtaining and using the apparatus. 

The hair about the fla<nks, udder, and the brush of the 
tail should be clipped short and the cows groomed once — 
or twice daily, if necessary, — one-half hour before milking, 
to allow dust to settle. 

Before each milking, the udder should be wiped with a 
clean, damp towel, or washed, if necessary, with soap and 
water and dried with a dry towel. 

The towels must be clean and the water pure for this 
purpose. The teats and udder should always be dry dur- 
ing milking. It is well to tie up the cow's tail to the stall 
while milkinof. Handling- the udder stimulates the flow of 
milk. So that the udder should be cleaned by a man or 
boy especially devoted to this work, who goes immediately 
ahead of the milker with pail of warm water, wash cloth, 
soap and clean towels. He can thus clean as many udders 
as would require ten milkers to milk. If the udders are 
cleansed some time before milking begins — as by the 
milkers th-emselves — the cows are apt either to leak their 
milk or to shrink in milk-yield. The general grooming 
of the cow's bodies may well be done some time before 
milking. Do not allow the cows to become excited by hard 
driving, abusive treatment or even loud talking. 

The best plan is to allow no talking whatever to the 
cows at milking, and then, when there is a change in milk- 
ers, it will not influence the animals so much. 



CHAPTER VI 



HANDLING OF MILK AND CREAM 



Milkers and Other Employees 

THE milker should be clean.* Before milkingr he must 
wash his hands thoroughly with warm water, soap 
and a nail brush. The hands must be well dried on 
a clean towel before milking- is becrun. 

A special suit of clean, washable outer garments should 
be worn durinof milkinof and at no other times. When not 
in use they must be kept In a clean and airy place. Each 
milker must be provided with a lantern when milking is 
not done in daylight, "unless the barn can be otherwise 
lighted. 

Milking ought to be performed at the same hour, 
morning and evening. Milking must be . accomplished 
quietly ; jerking the teats causes dirt and germs to drop in 
the milk and is not permissible.! The first few jets of milk 
from each teat must be rejected, because the germs are 
washed out of the milk cistern by the first part of the milk. 
If any of the milk in the pail becomes contaminated throucrh 
accident or through mixture with stringy or bloody milk 
from the udder, the whole must be thrown away. Milkino- 
stools must be clean ; iron stools, painted white, are recom- 
mended (see Fig. 3), or, better, the use of a milk pail as a 
seat (see Fig. 3c, page 74). 

* Milkers should be clean shaven and wear clean, washable coats. Hair on 
the face is inadvisable. 

f For more detailed account of milking and use of milking machine see 
Appendix, p. 189-192. ' 



/- 



CLEAN MILK 



After the milker has donned his milking suit and 
washed his hands, he should touch absolutely nothing but 
the cleaned teats of the cow and his clean stool and milk 
pail. Where great care is observed the milker is required 
to wash his hands after milking each cow. 

No person employed to milk, or handle milk in any way, 
should have, or have come in contact with, any contagious 
disease. In case of illness in the household of an employee 
a physician's certificate should be required of the employee 
stating that the illness is not communicable before permit- 
ting the employee to come in contact with milk in any 



mann«r. 



Fig. 3. 




Iron Milking Stool. 

The safest rule is to debar a person from handling 
milk who has throat trouble or any disease, or has come in 
contact with a patient suffering from contagious disorder, or 
entered a dwelling in which there has been contagious disease. 

The milk pail is an important factor in the production 
of clean milk. The writer first employed a pail which has a 
removable cover crowned up so that it is about four inches 
above the top of the pail, with a hole in the cover six inches 
in diameter. The pail has a spout arising from its upper 
part and reaching a little above the cover of the pail when 
it is in place. The spout on the pail is covered by a remov- 
able metal cap. 



HANDLING OF MILK: AND CREAM 



n 



Two layers of sterilized cheese cloth are placed across 
the top of the pail and then the cover is fitted on over the 
top of the pail, stretching and holding the cheese cloth in 
place. When the pail is full it may be emptied through the 
spout without disturbing the cheese cloth, and so be used 
through a whole milking. The gauze is washed in warm 
water, then in soda and water, and rinsed in cold water and 
boiled 20 minutes, or placed in the steam sterilizer before 
being used again. The Gurler milk pail (Fig. 3^) is very 
similar, with a removable cover, the opening in which is 



Fig. 3b 



Fig. 3A 





The Gurler Milk Pail. 



A recent improvement on the Gurler Pail. 



larger than it need be, however. Otherwise it is a very 
satisfactory pail. Cheese cloth is laid over the top of the 
pail and the cover is fitted on, stretching it into place. 
Experiments have shown that milking through a clean 
cheese cloth strainer is capable of yielding a comparatively 
clean milk, even in rather dirty premises. 

The writer has recently known excellent results with 
the use of a milk pail modified from one described by 
Stewart of Philadelphia. This is made of spun steel, 
10^ inches high, and is covered with a flat, removable lid 
on which the milker sits. The milking is done into a spout 



74 



CLEAN MILK 



which has an expanded opening 7 inches in diameter. The 
spout is covered at the end by a removable pan, and the 
bottom of the pan is a wire strainer — 100 meshes to the 
inch. The opening of the spout is nearly vertical, so that 
dirt will not easily fall into it. P- ny metal worker can make 
such a pail. Stewart's pail may now be procured of the 
Star Milk Cooler Co. Stewart found that milk in this pail 
contained only 29 germs, as against 125,000 germs to the 
quarter teaspoonful of milk drawn into an open bucket. 

Fig. 3c. 



HWi£. 'SPhirng^ 




Modification of Stewart's Milk Pail, the most satisfactory 
to the author. 

The metal strainer is safer where milkers are unreliable, 
as they will handle cheesecloth strainers and lay them down 
in dirty places. Cotton wool laid between two layers of 
cheesecloth to strain milk — while milking — into the pail, 
is more effective than cheesecloth alone, but we have found 
that the cotton wool is matted in lumps by the jets of milk 
and that only those absorbent cotton strainers made by 
dairy supply companies for the purpose are to be recom- 
mended. We have been content with the eood results 
obtained from cheesecloth alone. 



HANDLING OF MILK AND CREAM 75 

The handling of milk may be conducted properly in 
many ways. Some of these are very simple and inexpensive ; 
others, which are quite expensive and elaborate, are required 
for convenience and certainty when large quantities of milk 
are to be handled in the most approved style. 

To such a degree of refinement has this matter been 
carried, and such a multitude of utensils have been devised, 
that the Inexperienced, would-be dairyman is disheartened 
at the very outset by the great number of appliances which 
he finds are alike recommended and reviled by his various 
advisers. The matter of the best way to handle milk is a 
source of constant study, and Improvements are as constantly 
taking place, and while there will never be a time when 
competent men will all agree on special details, yet they are 
agreed on the principles and essentials of the business. We 
have already described the principles, and dwelt upon the 
facts which have led up to the establishment of those prin- 
ciples ; we now propose to devote our attention to the 
essentials In handling clean, pure milk. First : We will 
consider those essentials necessary to insure the continu- 
ance of the cleanliness of the milk until It reaches the con- 
sumer, and then the various devices for convenience, labor- 
saving and system required In handling large quantities of 
milk In the best manner known at the present time — always 
with the admitted possibility of improvement in details. 

The milk room Is the first essential. It must be clean, 
proof against dust and extreme weather conditions, and 
separate from barn and house. It need not be expensive 
or elaborate. The floor, although preferably of asphalt or 
cement, may be of oiled or painted wood (if smooth and 
tight), and if on the level with the bottom of the milk 
wagon, will make It easier in loading the milk. 



76 CLEAN MILK 

All water and washings from the room must be carried 
away in pipes to a point fifty yards from the milk house. 

The milk room should be surrounded by grounds free 
from rubbish, pools of milky water, or dust (fifteen grains 
of dust have been shown to contain as many as seventy 
million germs), and should be at least forty feet from the 
barn. 

It must be well lighted, with mosquito screens at the 
windows and doors. The windows and doors should be 
closed, as far as possible, at the time the milk is handled in 
the house, to exclude dust — ventilation being obtained by 
the King system. If there is a closed porch or vestibule, it 
will be an added safeguard against the admission of dust in 
windy weather, by providing an- entrance with double doors. 
The construction of the milk room may be of wood, with 
walls and ceiling of wood or plaster, preferably painted. 
Whitewash may, however, be used on the inside of the 
room and should be renewed every three months. Scrupu- 
lous cleanliness must be observed in the milk room, and it 
should be kept as dry as j^ossible in all its parts, with no 
spots of mold on the walls. No sour milk should be left in 
the room, as the sour milk, or lactic acid germs, will get 
into the fresh milk. The milk room ought not to be used 
for any other purpose than to handle the milk, and should 
contain nothing that is not required in handling milk. 

When milk is to be shipped in cans, the following 
utensils are essential : 

Milk pails. 

Receiving tank or cans. 

A strainer. 

A cooler or aerator. 

A collecting can. 

Shipping cans with all seams flushed with solder. 



HANDLING OF MILK AND CREAM jy 

A tank for washing purposes. 

A tajikfor itnniet'shtg cans in cold water. 

Also washing soda or soap powder, brushes to scrub utensils and 

inside of cans, and cheese cloth for straining purposes. 
Pure hot and cold water, and steam if busi; ess is conducted upon 

a large scale. 

Method of Handling Milk To Be Shipped in Cans 

CooUncc the Milk. — I can not acrree with such authori- 
ties as Dr. Chapin, of New York (than whom no one has 
done more to introduce clean milk into that metropolis), 
when he says on page 131 in his book on " Infant Feeding": 
" For cooling the milk to best advantage a can placed in ice 
water is better than the commercial coolers." Clean milk 
calls for milk cooled to below 50^ F. within an hour. 

This will not be accomplished by placing milk warm 
from the cows into large cans and then immersing the cans 
in ice water, unless by constant stirring of the milk in each 
can. Warm milk placed in quart bottles and immersed in 
ice water can be cooled properly — that is, to 45° F. — within 
the hour. When milk is , obtained from cows giving 
milk varying greatly in composition, as is usually the case, 
it must be thoroughly mixed before bottling. But, inas- 
much as half an hour or more is commonly required to milk 
sufficient milk to mix, and inasmuch as one can not keep 
warm milk for this period without great increase in germs, 
the only way is to cool each pailful as soon as it is milked. 

Then the milk may be kept an hour or more before it 
is mixed and bottled. I started out prejudiced in favor of 
cooling milk by immersion of cans or bottles in ice water, 
but did not find it practicable, except under certain condi- 
tions (see p. 84).* 

The chief essential consists in immediate cooling of the 
milk. When milking begins, as soon as a milk pail is filled, 

* There is no doubt but that the cooler and all apparatus, not necessary in 
haudling milk, should be abandoned when possible. The oftener milk touches 
objects the more likely will contamination result, especially by aeration in a 
dusty atmosphere. But immediate cooling is essential. 



78 CLEAN MILK 

the milk should be taken directly to the milk house and the 
milk poured into the strainer, which is placed in the receiv- 
ing tank of the cooler. The milk runs over the cooler and 
is received in the shipping can, which, when filled, should 
be immersed in a tank of cold or iced water above the 
shoulder of the can with the cover of the can left off until 
shipping time. The milk, falling from the cooler, should 
pass through two layers of cheese cloth laid over the top of 
the shipping can. The milk should be cooled below 50^ F. 
Two types of coolers or aerators are in common use. Aera- 
tion,* or exposure of the milk to air, is not essential if the 
milk is withdrawn from the cow in a cleanly manner, but if 
the milk is more or less contaminated with manure, by 
impure air or by odors caused by imperfect feeding, aeration 
frees it to an extent of so-called animal odor. The coolers 
in ordinary use do, however, aerate the milk at the same 
time that the milk is cooled. The conical cooler (Fig. 4) 
may be employed when a moderate quantity of milk is 
to be handled, but requires more labor, as, in order to cool 
the milk satisfactorily, the water In the aerator must be 
constantly stirred to continually change the layer of water 
lying against the inner surface of the tin over which the 
milk runs. This aerator is fitted with an inflow and outflow 
pipe for running water, at either side of the base of the 
aerator, but unless the water is near the freezing point, it is 
better to fill the aerator with cracked ice, salt and water. 
In this case the aerator may be simply used as a storage 
tank for ice water, and both the inflow and outflow pipes are 
closed. By constant stirring of the ice water in the aerator 
while the milk Is flowing, it is possible to reduce the tem- 

* Aeration is inadvisable, in so far as the milk is exposed to germs in the 

air during the process. 



HANDLING OF MILK AND CREAM ,79 

perature of the milk coming from the cooler to below 50*^ F. 
In this style of aerator the milk Hows from the reservoir at 
the top through fine holes all about the base of the res- 
ervoir out on to the surface and corrugations of the cooler, 
collects in the gutter below, and is carried off by the pipe 
leading from the gutter (in the front of the aerator in the 
cut) into the shipping can. Often these holes are too large 

Fig. 4. 




The Conical Cooler. 

or too numerous, allowing the milk to flow too fast, when 
some must be closed by solder. This kind of aerator 
works very unsatisfactorily if the water is not constantly 
stirred, and is not to be recommended if running water 
is at command and permits of use of a star or tubular 
cooler. 

The Star cooler (Fig. 5), or that of the tubular variety 
(Fig. 6), are by far the most efficient, certain and conven- 
ient coolers, although more expensive in first cost than the 



8o 



CLEAN MILK 



conical aerators. The much greater surface offered by the 
tremendously corrugated form of the cooler, together with 



Fig. 5. 




Star Cooler. 

the forced circulation of water which flows continuously 
from below upward through the cooler, account for the 
superiority of this type of cooler. 

Fig. 6. 



6PRIKG WATER 

■«: 

DISCHARGE 




SPBrNSWKTEl* 
SUPPtTi 



ICE WATEft > 
fH sgppLif 



Tubular Cooler. 



The temperature of the milk may be lowered to a point 
two degrees above that of the water circulating through the 
cooler. 



HANDLING OF MILK AND CREAM 



8i 



The Star cooler is made of two sheets of corrugated 
copper, tinned on its outer surface, which comes in contact 
with the milk. The water enters below, filling the entire 
space between the copper sheets, and flows upward through 
the cooler, while the warm milk drops through the holes 
punched along the whole length of the feed trough at the 
top of the cooler and flows down over both cooling sheets. 
As the milk is cooled, flowing down the outside, the water 
is warmed as it moves up the inside of the cooler 
(see Fig. 5). 

Fig. 7. 




Star Milk Cooler. 



The water supply for the cooler may be obtained in 
various ways : From a common source of water, as a town 
supply ; from a barrel or tank over the cooler (see Fig. 7) ; 
or from a barrel beneath the cooler by means of a siphon 
attachment (see Fig. 8). If it be desired to cool the milk 
much under 50*^, it may be necessary to use ice water in a 
part of the cooler. 

This is most economically accomplished by an ice water 
section, which is made to be hung on the bottom of the 
Star cooler and is practically a small counterpart of the 



82 



CLEAN MILK 



larger cooler above (Fig. 9). Ice water is run through the 
ice section alone and is obtained from an overhead barrel 
holding broken ice, over which water is sprayed from a 
large-surface nozzle, and flows from the barrel through a 
short hose throuQrh the ice water section. 

A similar result may be secured by using a tubular 
cooler (Fig. 6), arranged so the general water supply may 
be run through the upper half of the cooler, and the ice 
water or cold brine through the lower half. By either of 

Fig. 8 




Star Milk Cooler 

these contrivances milk may be reduced to a temperature 
below 40*^. 

In place of the spray-head for sprinkling water on 
cracked ice in a barrel, to supply the ice water section of 
the Star cooler, it has been found (by my friend Mr. Paul- 
hamus, of Sumner, Wash.) that the following arrangement 
is better : A medium-sized cask is lined from top to bottom 
with a coil of a hundred feet or more of half-inch pipe. 
The water supply is connected with the bottom of the coil, 
and the top of the coil is connected with the ice water sec- 
tion of the Star cooler. Large pieces of cracked ice are 



HANDLING OF MILK AND CREAM 



83 



used to fill the cask to the top, to which may be added rock 
salt and then water. If salt is used, care must be taken to 
have the water running" constantly through the coil in the 
cask, otherwise the water will freeze in the coil. This way 
of cooling the water supply for the water section of the 
Star cooler is both more convenient and satisfactory be- 
cause the cask may be placed directly on the floor of the 
milk room, instead of up in the air as required for the 
sprinkler, and much less Ice is used than when a sprinkler 
is employed. 

Fig. 9. 




OOPYRIQHT, 1908, 



Star Milk Cooler. 

The advantages of such arrangements consist in utiliz- 
ing the natural temperature of the regular water supply of 
the dairy to do the chief part part of cooling the milk, 
while the ice water is only required to complete the smaller 
part of the reduction of temperature in hot weather. There 
are many different sizes of both the conical, tubular and 
Star coolers adapted to the quantity of milk which is 
handled. The tubular coolers are constructed to withstand 
high water pressure, while the Star coolers are not. 

While milk may be simply poured from the milking 



84 



CLEAN MILK 



pails through two or three thicknesses of cheese cloth into 
a receiving can, from which it is transferred to the receiving 
tank of the cooler, a better form of strainer is the trap 
variety (see Fig. lo), which is placed in the receiving tank 
of the cooler. The milk is poured into the upright funnel^ 
and has to rise from below up through the cheese cloth 
strainer to seek its level. 

Particles of dirt and foreign matter would naturally^ 
through gravity, fall to the bottom of the vessel and not be 
forced through WMth the milk, as commonly happens when 
milk is poured from above through a strainer. 

Fig. io 




Trap Milk Strainer. 

The simplest, cleanest and most inexpensive method of 
handling milk is to place it — as soon as milked — in a bottle- 
filler tank and run it at once into bottles and immerse the 
bottles in ice water. By this method, the need of a cooler 
is avoided and the chance of germs getting into the milk 
during its exposure to the air in running over the cooler. 
On the other hand, there are two objections. There should 
be four milkers or so to supply enough milk at any time, so 
that the mixed milk from a number of cows may be bottled. 
If one waits until milk from several cows is obtained, with 
one or two milkers, the germs will have a chance to multiply 
in the warm milk. The other objection consists in the 



HANDLING OF MILK AND CREAM 85 

immediate bottling of milk without aeration. This objec- 
tion does not hold if the milk is withdrawn from clean cows 
in well ventilated stables, and milk is handled in this manner 
in many of the best dairies. 

The milk will be cooled to 45° F in ice water in an hour 
and by no method will the cream rise more rapidly. 

Hot Watei'. — Hot water may be readily obtained at 
comparatively small expense from a tank, such as is com- 
monly employed for supplying households with hot water 
when attached to the kitchen stove, by connecting the tank 
with a coil of pipe placed in an ordinary air-tight, wood stove. 
If a steam boiler is in use, the steam may be run into a tank 
of cold water.* In either case the stove or boiler should be 
placed in an adjoining room, to avoid dirt, while the tank 
is in the milk room. 

Cleaning Utensils. — After milking, all the utensils, in- 
cluding milk pails, receiving tank, cooler, straining cloths, 
etc., should be at once rinsed in cold water, then washed in 
hot water and soap powder or washing soda (sodium 
carbonate in 3 per cent, solution), and rinsed again in clean, 
cold water. Finally, all metal dairy utensils should have 
boiling water poured over them, which sterilizes and dries 
them at once. Dairy utensils should never be dried with 
towels. The cans should be scalded with boiling water or 
have live steam turned in them and be placed upside down 
on bars to drain in the milk room, thus also admitting air. 
Rusty cans should never be used ; they sometimes impart a 
fishy taste to milk. A fishy flavor is said to be given to milk 
and butter when washing powder is not well rinsed from 
dairy utensils, also by cows drinking stagnant water. 

The strainer cloths used over the milk pails and other 
utensils may be of various materials. The writer has em- 

* The steam heating tee is a most convenient appliance for heating water (see 
page 95). 



86 



CLEAN MILK 



ployed chiefly cheese cloth or rather gauze (which is cheese 
cloth prepared by washing, to remove the sizing and impur- 
ities, and dried), of the finest mesh, and two layers in 
thickness. 

A single thickness of coarse cotton flannel or Turkish 
towelling may be used, however. When the strainer 
cloth can not be sterilized in a regular sterilizer, it should 
be boiled for twenty minutes wrapped in a towel or clean 
cloth and left enclosed in this wrapping until used. Then 
it should be removed, but the fingers should not touch 
that part of the strainer cloth which will come in contact 

Fig. ir. 




COPYRIGHT, 1903, 



Wash Sink. 



"with the milk. Before sterilizing the cloth, it should be well 
rinsed in cold water, washed in hot water and washing soda, 
and rinsed in cold water again. Every little detail must be 
carried out conscientiously, as one failure in caring for the 
milk properly will spoil the result entirely. 

A convenient arrangement, when steam is employed, 
is the wash sink (see Fig. 1 1 ), provided with draining trays 
at each end. The can is placed upside down over the two 
nipples in the tray, one supplying a jet of water to rinse the 
can, and the other a jet of steam to sterilize or kill germs in 
it. Various forms of brushes are desirable for scrubbing 



HANDLING OF MILK AND CREAM 



87 



the utensils (see Fig. 12). They should be boiled daily for 
ten minutes after use. 

To keep milk cool in cans during shipment the refrig- 
erator car is commonly employed. Where this is not pos- 
sible, the writer has known of the use of a cylindrical, hollow 
can of tin, with open top and closed bottom, being suspended 
bottom down, well into the milk or cream, from the 
mouth of the shipping can, and filled with cracked ice. The 
milk can jacket, made of hair, felt and canvas, will protect 
cans against the effect of heat and cold to a considerable 
extent (see Fig. 13). 

Fig. 12. 




Various Forms of Brushes. 

Bottled Milk. — If milk is to be shipped in bottles 
instead of cans, the following utensils will be essential in 
the milk room : 

Glass Bottles, made to withstand heat, and Delivery Boxes. 

A Receiving Tank, with Trap Strainer. 

A Cooler, with Ice Water Section. 

A Collecting Tank. 

A Bottle Filler, with Table. 

A Sterilizer. 

A Washing Outfit. 

The cooling arrangement is precisely as described 
above for cooling milk to be shipped in cans. When there 
are eight or ten milkers, so that the milk from as many cows 
may be mixed as soon as milked without loss of valuable 



88 CLEAN milk: 

time when it should be cooling, then the warm, mixed milk 
may properly be drawn directly into the bottles from the 
bottle filler. The bottles should, on being filled, be 
instantly immersed to the neck in ice water. In this way 
bottled milk may be suitably cooled, with the avoidance of 
the unnecessary exposure to two tanks and the air In 
passing over the cooler. The bottle filler is indispensable 
(see Fig. 14) for conveniently filling several bottles at once. 
By moving a lever one can fill from four to eighteen bottles 
to the same level at one time. The prices of these contri- 

FiG. 13. 




Milk Can Jacket. 

vances vary greatly with the size and material used in their 
construction. 

The sterilizer is an important utensil. It is a tight 
chamber into which steam is turned, with the object of 
destroying germs, and is made to hold the bottles and 
absolutely every other dairy utensil with which milk comes 
in contact. 

The germs are not only those which may have inhab- 
ited the milk, but occasionally there may be germs of dis- 
ease contaminating the returned bottle, owing to it having 
been in a house in which such disease existed. 

There are two styles of steam sterilizers — those in 



HANDLING OF MILK AND CREAM 



89 



which the steam is not under pressure, and those confining 
steam under pressure. 

The latter type is more efficient, in that with steam 
under pressure it is possible to obtain a much higher tem- 
perature than when it is not. Steam, when not under pres- 
sure, will not exceed in temperature boiling water (212° F.). 
With a pressure of ten pounds and a temperature of 241° F. 

Fig. 14 




Star Side-Bar Filler. 

in the high pressure sterilizers, it is possible to destroy the 
germs in the milk utensils with as much certainty in twenty 
minutes as with steam at 212° F. in the low pressure ster- 
ilizers in an hour. The heavy pressure or high pressure 
sterilizers are, however, exceedingly expensive, and, if the 
bottles are properly washed, there Is practically no danger 
in relying upon the less expensive steam sterilizers In which 
the steam is not confined under pressure.* In Fig. 15 is 

* Indeed, washing and sterlizing may be done at the same time (see page 185). 



90 



CLEAN MILK 



shown a high pressure sterilizer. It must be built very 
strongly to withstand the pressure, which is over fifteen 
tons against the cloor alone, with a pressure of ten pounds 
of steam in the sterilizer. The matter of a sterilizer in 



Fig. 15. 




Star High Pressure Sterilizer. 

"which the steam is not confined under pressure Is a compar- 
atively simple affair. 

One may be home-made. The writer had a sterilizer 
"built of two-inch plank, lined with galvanized iron, with 
double doors fastened with an iron bar across the front. 



HANDLING OF MILK AND CREAM 91 

The shape was nearly square and the capacity was about 
250 quart bottles. There was a movable sheet of galvan- 
ized iron, partitioning the sterilizer in two, and movable 
shelves of the same, perforated with holes, in which the 
bottles rested upside down on their shoulders. The shelves 
stretched horizontally across the sterilizer, from each side 
to the partition in the centre, resting on galvanized angle 
irons soldered along both sides and on each side of the par- 
tition in the centre. 

The shelves were just far enough apart to give room 
for a tier of bottles. Shelves and partition were removed 
to allow of room for sterilizing the milk pails, cooler, bottle 
filler and strainer, cheese cloths, and tanks supplying and 
receiving milk from cooler, etc. The sterilizer was fed from 
a ten horse power boiler with steam from below, and also 
had an exit or exhaust in the bottom, while at the top there 
was a hole in which was a cork holding a thermometer in 
place, with bulb inside and recording part outside of steril- 
izer. The doors were not steam-tight, and no pressure of 
steam was attempted or possible in the sterilizer, but the 
temperature was raised to 212^ in about twenty minutes, 
and maintained for the time — one hour — occupied by steril- 
ization. 

A very successful sterilizer has recently been made by 
my friend, Hon. W. H. Paulhamus, of Sumner, Wash., 
entirely of concrete faced with cement, and costing about 
$75.00.* It is a rectangular chamber 6^ feet high by 8 feet 
wide and about 14 feet long and 6 inches thick, with one 
iron door. In the top, iron bars were used to reinforce 
the concrete. Two half-inch pipes enter one side of the 
chamber just above the floor for intake of steam from a 
twenty-five horse power boiler,and,at the top, there is a sino-le 

* See plate opposite page 184. 



92 



CLEAN MILK 



pipe for outlet of steam when sterilization is over to cool off 
the oven, and one to drain the floor. In the middle of one side 
there is also a pipe inserted, large enough to hold a thermo- 
meter. This sterilizer is enormous, and will hold loo dozen 
bottles and every bit of dairy apparatus used on four farms, 
including the milk pails and milk cans, coolers, and bottle 
filling apparatus, strainer cloth, etc. If one does not wish to 
make a sterilizer, the largest size only should be bought 

Fig. i6. 







Star Sterilizer. 



(Fig. 1 6), as it is most economical in saving the expense of 
doing several sterilizations daily, because with it all bottles 
and every article of dairy utensil can be sterilized at one 
time. In case the Star galvanized sterilizer is used, the 
bottle carriers described on page 102 may be employed to 
hold the bottles in the sterilizer, or a rack and truck similar 
to that pictured on page 103 and 104 may be utilized. 

This sterilizer is made of heavy galvanized iron, 



HANDLING OF MILK AND CREAM 93 

riveted and soldered together, and holding from 240 to 632 
quart bottles, according to the size. It is supplied with 
perforated steam coil and trapped drain outlet, and it is 
well to have an exhaust to carry off surplus steam, although 
the doors are not steam-tight when closed. A thermometer 
placed in the center of the door is also advisable. Both the 
heavy pressure and the galvanized iron sterilizers are made 
either with a door at one end or a door at each end. The 
latter arrangement is a convenience when there is a separ- 
ate room for washing the bottles, the sterilizer being placed 
in the partition between the washing and bottling room and 
the bottles passed in the sterilizer through a door in the 
wash room and taken out through the other door in the 



Fig. 17. 






Bottle Brush. 

Sterilizer in the bottling room. Every single utensil with 
which milk comes in contact, including the various tanks 
and strainer cloths, should be thoroughly washed and steril- 
ized after each milking for one hour at 212° F. To avoid 
sterilization twice daily, however, it is better to have two 
sets of utensils, which may be sterilized all together once 

daily. 

Washing Outfit. — A separate room should be provided 
for washing milk utensils where the best plan is pursued. 
Since we are considering the essentials for handling clean 
milk we have not included a wash room separate from the 
milk room, as clean milk can be handled in a combination 
bottling and wash room, although not to the best advantage. 
The bottles should be rinsed in warm water and washed with 



94 



CLEAN MILK 



washing soda and hot water (in 3 per cent, solution) with a 
bottle brush (see Fig, i 7), and then rinsed in clean hot water 
and Inverted over the trays or shelves, which are placed in 
the sterilizer. The most convenient arranorement is such as 
that shown In the cut (Fig. 18), two tanks, one holding 
lukewarm water in which the bottles are soaked and the 
other hot water containing washing soda, while at the end 
there are projecting nipples over which the bottles are 
inverted, and, by turning the lever, several bottles are 
rinsed at once. Each tank has an overflow standpipe to 
carry off the grease floating on the top of the water.* 



Fig. I 




Star Metal Wash Sink. 

An additional Improvement Is the turbine bottle washer 
shown in the illustration (Fig. 19). It consists of a revolv- 
ing brush which Is turned by a turbine wheel with steam at 
a pressure of twelve to fifteen pounds. In this cut are 
shown the two larore tanks on the left, for soaklnor and wash- 
Inof bottles in washlno- soda and water, and then the small 
tank, next the bottle washer, over which the bottles are 
inverted to be rinsed inside. This is accomplished by 
nipples as shown in the cut (Fig. 18) spraying water into 
the interior of a number of bottles at one time, which are 



* For a washing apparatus, where 1,000 or more bottles are handled, see 
Appendix, 



HANDLING OF MILK AND CREAM 



95 



then dipped in the small tank below to wash the outside of 
the bottle, and are transferred to the tank at the extreme 
riorht to drain. 

None of this special bottle-washing outfit is essential. 
Any convenient arrangement of tubs and hot water by 
which the bottles are put through three processes in wash- 
ine — first rinsine in warm water, then in hot alkali and 
water, and finally in clean hot water — will suffice. 




Fig. 20 



Star Bottle Washing Outfit. 

If the bottles are thoroughly rinsed at the consumer's 
house the first rinsing in plain water may even be dispensed 
with, provided the bottles are thoroughly 
scrubbed inside with a brush and hot alkali 
water and well rinsed In clean hot water. 
The hot water may be supplied from a hot 
water tank, as suggested (p. 85), or by means 

Steam Heating ^f ^ steam heatinor tee (Fior. 20). 

Tee. , * . 

This is an arrangement by which water 

may be heated to almost any temperature desired (short 




96 CLEAN MILK 

of boiling), by steam and cold water coming in contact, in 
varying proportions, according to the amount of either 
which is permitted to flow into the tee. Thus the steam 
enters the side and the water the top of the tee, both being 
regulated by valves in the steam and water pipes, and the 
hot water flows out below. Cold water or steam may be 
obtained separately also, from the device, which is com- 
paratively inexpensive. A very convenient bottle-washing 
machine is shown in the Appendix (p. 185.) 

The routine of operating the dairy would be as fol- 
lows : The empty, returned bottles would be taken from the 
wap-on boxes into the milk room and there rinsed in warm 
water, in one tub, and then scrubbed with a brush in another 
tub holding alkali and water,. as hot as the hand can bear.. 

Fig. 21. 



The bottles should be next rinsed in clean, hot water, in- 
verted in the racks and placed in the sterilizer, where they 
are sterilized at 212*^ F. (by a reliable thermometer) (Fig. 21) 
for an hour. The bottles should remain inverted until used. 
The milk is brought from the barn in milk pails or cans, 
as soon as milked, and poured into the Star trap strainer 
restino- in the receiving tank of the Star milk cooler with ice 
water section. The milk flows from the collecting tank of 
the cooler through sterilized cheese cloth into a large can, 
if it is desired to thoroughly mix the milk of many cows 
before it is bottled. Instead of a can for mixing the 
cooled milk, it is better to use the large tank for filling the 
bottles — that is, the bottle-filler tank ; and after twenty gal- 
lons or more of milk have flowed from the collecting-tank 



HANDLING OF MILK AND CREAM 97 

of the cooler into the bottle-filler tank, the milk should be 
well stirred with a sterilized stirrer and the bottles filled 
while the milk is being mixed. The stirrer may be made 
like a huge fork, from heavy tin. 

The warm milk of several cows may be mixed in the 
barn by pouring the contents of a number of milk pails into 
a large can. But unless there are enough milkers to do this 
within a few minutes, it is better to carry each milk pail to 
the cooler, as soon as it is full and mix the milk after it 

Fig. 22 




Machine for chopping ice used to pack about milk bottles. 

has cooled. The time elapsing between milking and bot- 
tling should be as short as possible. The milk must be 
cooled instantly after milking, and be bottled within an hour 
of milking. In some establishments the milk is bottled 
within eicrht minutes of milkine. The cooled, mixed milk 
is poured into the bottle filler and flows Immediately into 
the bottles, which are then quickly capped with sterilized, 
paper caps, and placed in the wagon boxes well surrounded 
with ice in warm weather. The milk should be delivered to 
the consumer the year round at a temperature not over 45*^ F. 
If not shipped immediately — as in case of the night's 



98 CLEAN MILK 

milk — the milk may be stored in the wagon boxes over 
night with ice or kept in cold storage or in sufficiently cold 
water. (Fig. 22). 

All the dairy utensils should be rinsed in clean warm 
or cold water as soon as the milk has been bottled and then 
washed with scalding alkali water and rinsed with clean cold 
water, and sterilized an hour in the sterilizer, including the 
cheese cloth used in straining the milk in the milk pails, in 
the Star trap strainer, and that used over the can in which 
the cooled milk is mixed. The floor must be kept damp to 
avoid dust, and the windows and doors should be closed 
while the milk is being handled for the same reason. When 
dairy utensils are not in use, they may be kept in a sterilizer, 

Fig. 23. 




Banjo Conductor for carrying milk through a wall. 

or, if this is not practicable, it is well in many milk rooms to 
cover them with a clean sheet, to keep off the dust, and to 
rinse the cooler with clean, cold water just before using, for 
the same reason. A properly constructed and managed 
milk room should be dust-proof and dust-free, and such 
precautions should be entirely unnecessary. 

Turning live steam against the walls of the milk room 
each day is useful as an aid to cleanliness, provided that 
they are constructed to withstand the process. 

The employees in the milk room ought to tvear clean, 
washable clothes. Linen gowns, like those worn by butchers, 
which may be slipped over the clothes, are most convenient. 

The final test of perfection of cleanliness of the rrilk, 
produced as described, is the laboratory. Such tests should 



HANDLING OF MILK AND CREAM 



99 



be made once a week. If the milk is sold as "certified," it 
must receive the sanction of some reliable and disinterested 
society or person. The bacterial content or number of 
germs should not exceed 30,000* to the cubic centimeter, 
according to the consensus of authorities at the present 
time, in so-called certified milk. It is perfectly possible to 
produce milk which shall not exceed in number 2,000 to 
4,000 germs to the cubic centimeter by the comparatively 
simple and inexpensive plant which has just been described 
above, as the author has practically demonstrated. 

Fig. 24. 




Cylinder for conveying milk through a floor. 



A more perfect arrangement in a dairy building for 
handling clean milk is of advantage when one can afford it. 
The most important improvement consists in separating 
the bottling or milk room proper from the wash room, in 
which the sterilization and washing of the milk utensils are 
done, and to devote two rooms to these different processes, 
(i) The boiler and engine should have a separate room, and, 
adjoining this, (2) a room for washing and sterilization, and 
then a room (3) in which the milk is cooled and bottled. 

* 10,000 germs is the maximum number permitted by many Milk Commis- 
sions. 



lOO 



CLEAN MILK 



A still further development comprises the following in the 
dairy building : 



A Milk Receiving Room. 
A Milk Room. 
A Bottle Room. 
A Wash Room. 
An Engine Room. 



A Boiler Room. 

A Cold Storage Room. 

A Shipping Room. 

A Lavatory. 

A Laundry. 



Fig. 25. 




Cream Cooler connected with Separator. 

The milk receiving room may be connected with the 
barn by a cable system by which two 5 to 10 gallon cans are 
suspended on can carriages running on an overhead wire. 
The milk receivinof room is on a hiorher level than the milk 
room, so that the milk flows from it through the floor 
through a funnel or cylinder, or through the wall by a 
Banjo conductor (see Figs. 23 and 24) directly into the 
receiving tanks of the cooler or separator in the milk room 
below, thus avoiding unnecessary handling. 



HANDLING OF MILK AND CREAM 



lOI 



The milk room should not be connected with tne outer 
air by a door or open window, but must be ventilated so as 
to exclude dust and only be connected with the other rooms. 
It contains the appliances for cooling and bottling milk we 
have already noticed, and also a separator, cream cooler and 
cream bottle filler (Figs. 25 and 26), if cream is to be made. 

The bottle room adjoins the milk room, in which the 
clean bottles are kept after being sterilized. One end of 
the sterilizer projects into this room from the wash room. 

Fig. 26. 




Cream Bottle Filler. 



The wash room contains the sterilizer, the bottle washing 
outfit, and a Babcock tester. The cold storage room is of 
great convenience where large quantities of milk are 
handled and may be arranged with natural ice, or by means 
of ammonia compression and an artificial refrigerating and 
ice-making plant. The lavatory and laundry are for the 
use of the employees in the dairy, the former with a shower 
bath, set basin and dressing room, and the latter to wash the 
clothes used by the employees. In the shipping room are 
the cases for holding the bottles, and the fioor platform for 
loading the wagons should be on a level with them. Where 



I02 



CLEAN MILK 



there is machinery, as for a refrigerating plant, it is well to 
separate the boiler by a partition from the engine and fire 
room and thus avoid the dust, ashes and dirt from fuel.* 

Space does not permit of more than a brief outline of the 
more elaborate dairy plant, but we would refer to onef who 
makes a business of planning and installing such, from whom 
we have derived many valuable suggestions. The object of 
this book is to detail the less elaborate and more essential 



Fig. 27 




COPYRIGHT, 1903, 



Bottle Carriers. 



methods which may be used by the farmer without great 
expense in the production of clean milk on a moderate scale. 
In the handling of milk bottles in the dairy, it is much 
more convenient — though not essential — if they can be 
transported and inverted in numbers without handling each 
bottle separately. Thus carriers have been invented for 
holding them, with reversing racks, so that the bottles may 
be inverted — as when they are sterilized— by turning over 

* For plan of milk house, see p. 179. 

t Samuel M. Heulings, Haddonfield, N. J. 



HANDLING OF MILK AND CREAM- 



103 



as many as 20 bottles at once (see Fig. 27V Cars are also 
made which are used to transport these carriers and the cars, 
carriers and bottles are all wheeled directly into the steri- 
lizer and out aeain without handling the individual bottles 
(see Figs, 28 and 29). 

Shipping Cases ancl Boxes. — Milk bottles of glass must 
be shipped in some sort of box. The writer has had such 
boxes made of strong galvanized iron (24 gage) with rolled 
edo-es at all the joints, with a hinged cover and padlock, and 

Fig. 28. 




COPYRrGHT, 1903, 



A Car for conveying carriers and bottles. 

with metal handles at either end. Padlocks must be made 
to have the same key fit them all ; but we have found great 
trouble in getting padlocks which were not continually 
o-ettino- out of order. For this reason, and because keys 
for such padlocks are readily obtained by outsiders, I 
recommend the use of a lead seal having an opening through 
which the ends of short wires are passed. The seal is then 
compressed by a special punch, thus locking the ends of the 
•wires and serving as a perfect padlock which is not likely 



I04 



CLEAN MILK 



to be tampered with without detection. The seal and wire 
for each shipping box cost about one-sixth of a cent and 
may be obtained complete with the punch. One called 
"The Enterprize Punch & Seal" has proved efficient. 
The boxes hold 12 quart bottles, which are separated by 
a framework of galvanized iron on the same plan as the 
pasteboard partitions or fillers in ^^<g cases. These frames 
lift out of the boxes and are 3^ inches deep. The boxes 
are 12^X17^X10 inches deep and have a small hole 

Fig. 29. 




COPYRIGHT, 1903, 

A Car for conveying carriers and bottles. 



punched in the bottom to allow the water, from melting Ice, 
to drain away. This is advisable in saving ice and the 
weight of the water in transportation. I have found the 
locked boxes necessary to prevent theft of the milk and 
empty bottles in transportation. Boxes may be bought 
holding various quantities of bottles, as 20 or 14 pints 
(see Fig. 30). 

Bottles. — In regard to glass bottles there is not much 
to say except that a bottle of good material and proper 



HANDLING OF MILK AND CREAM 



105 



annealing must be secured to stand the repeated steriliza- 
tions (Fig. 31). The shapes are more a matter of taste than 
anything else. The bottles with the long and slender necks 
make a greater display of cream. The latest departure in 
the way of a milk bottle is the Single Service Paper Milk 
Bottle sold by the Renno Case Co., 3951 Market Street, 
Philadelphia. This does away with the breakage, the clean- 
ing, the sterilization, and the loss incurred in collection of 
empty milk bottles. The paper bottles are made in quarts, 
pints and half-pints, are saturated with paraffin and are ab- 
solutely sterile — that is, free from germs. The paper bottle 
weighs 2 ounces, as against 24 to 26 ounces in the case of 

Fig 30. 




COPrHIGHT, ISO J, 

Wagon Box for carrying bottles and ice, not covered or locked. 



the glass quart bottle. The chief advantages of the paper 
bottle lie in the saving of expense in not having to collect 
(and lose) bottles, as they are only made to be used once 
and rejected; and in the saving of weight in transportation, 
as almost twice as much milk can be carried on a wao-on. 
Then the bottles are about 25^ inches shorter than the glass 
bottles, on account of their thinner walls ; the paper lids 
fit down into the bottle and allow of no leaking ; and the 
necks are wide enough to remove the cream with a spoon. 
The cost is about i cent each for quart, and eight-tenths of a 
cent for pint paper bottles. The only disadvantage which 
occurs to the writer is the fact that quality and quantity of 



io6 



CLEAN MILK 



the cream would not be so apparent in the paper bottles, 
nor would dirt. 

The advent of the paper bottle would seem then to be 
of enormous advantage to farmers in enabling them to ship 
milk in bottles without all the expense and labor of the 
washing and sterilizing outfit now required for glass bottles. 
At present writing it is, however, impossible to secure the 
bottle as the makers are as yet not supplying dairymen at 
large, and the writer has had no practical experience with 

Fig. 31. 







Star Milk Bottles. 



the paper bottle. The foregoing statements were taken 
from the report of Dr. A. H. Stewart, who made a study of 
the paper bottle, in Sanitation for December 6th, 1905. 

The same care should be exercised in the production of 
cream as in the case of milk. While 99 per cent, of germs 
in milk are to be found in the cream which rises naturally 
on that milk, separated cream contains about one-fourth of 
the oferms in the milk from which it is obtained. But as the 
cream constitutes only a sntall part of the original milk — 
say one-sixth — the actual number of germs in a given 
amount of separation — cream would be greater than in the 



HANDLING OF MILK AND CREAM 



107 



Fig. 32. 



same quantity of the milk from which the cream was 
separated. 

Cream in cities is consumed largely on the table and 
for making ice cream and whipped cream. Fatal poisonino- 
has occurred from ice cream made from unclean milk (see 
p. 22). Babies are chiefly fed nowadays on cream and 

water. The cream is usually re- 
moved from milk at the infant's 
home, but market cream is often 
used for this purpose. 

When cream is used for any 
of the purposes recited, it is impera- 
tive that the cream should be clean 
or as free from germs as possible. 
We have already alluded to the 
value of clean cream for butter- 
making. 

The warm milk direct from the 
cow must be immediately separated, 
as a temperature of 86^ F. is most 
favorable for separation. Nor must 
time be permitted for germs to mul- 
tiply in the warm milk between milk- 
ing and separation ; the milk must 
be separated as fast as milked. As 
soon as the cream is separated it 
should be immediately cooled to below 50° F., pre- 
ferably to 40*^ F. This is best accomplished by allowing 
the cream to run directly from the separator into the 
receiving tank of a tubular or Star cooler. The cooler 
is identical with that for milk, but the holes are larger 
in the receptacle which feeds the cooler. The cream is 




Hand Separator for separat 
■ ing cream from milk. 



I08 CLEAN MILK 

transferred from the collecting tank of the cooler to 
a cream bottle-filler, and then is run into sterilized 
bottles. The bottles are shipped like milk in shipping 
boxes and, except in cold weather, are packed in ice. 
The bowl and all movable parts of the separator must 
be washed as carefully as any other dairy utensils by 
first rinsing in cold water, then scrubbing in warm water and 
washing soda with a brush, and rinsing again with clean, 
cold water. Finally, the parts should be sterilized with 
boiling water or by placing them in a sterilizer. All this 
should be done after each use of the separator. For this 
reason a separator having as simple construction and as few 
parts which come in contact with milk as possible should be 
preferred. The Sharpies separator is one of the simplest 
in this respect and therefore most readily cleaned.* 

If the cream is shipped in cans, it may be kept cool in 
the same manner as that recommended for milk (see p. 87). 
Cream thickeners of gelatin are not uncommonly used to 
thicken cream. Starch and syrup of lime, known as 
" Viscogen," are also employed. Separated cream does not 
whip quite so readily as set cream, and syrup of lime may 
be used to aid its whipping, without injury to the consumer, 
provided that only a small amount — not over ^ teaspoon- 
ful of the syrup to the pint of cream — is used. In fact, this 
proportion is often employed in cream mixtures for feeding 
babies to increase the digestibility of the cream. Viscogen 
should not be added to cream for sale in the market. For 
tests for adulterants of cream, see p. 140. 

Cream of varying composition is sold in the market. 
It generally varies from 20 to 50 per cent, in fat-content. 
Cream must contain at least 18 per cent of fat according 
to the U. S. Pure Food Law, June, 1906. 

* See page 175 for management of separators. 



HANDLING OF MILK AND CREAM 109 

In order that cream may be readily whipped, it should 
contain over 20 per cent, of fat, preferably 30 to 40 per 
cent., and be below 50 per cent, in temperature. Cream 
should be at least 24 hours old — to contain a small amount 
of acid — in order to whip well. Pasteurized cream will not 
whip satisfactorily unless viscogen is added to it ; or a 
starter, to develop slight acidity in it. The vessel in which 
the whipping is done should be cold and round-bottomed ; 
the whipping should be done with great speed ; and the 
whipper should not be more than three-fourths covered with 
cream. The cream sold in this city (Seattle) commonly 
contains from 31 to 33 per cent, of fat. 

In concluding the subject of the production and handling 
of clean milk and cream, I wish to emphasize the fact 
that most farmers can produce clean milk without great 
expense in ordinary barns and milk rooms, and can, by so 
doing, make more money — even with the added expense. 

If paper bottles come into general use, the greater part 
of all the extra trouble and expense now entailed in bottling 
milk at the farm will be abolished. Clean milk may be 
shipped in cans, with but slight cost over ordinary milk, and 
is just as satisfactory, providing the cans go directly to the 
consumer and their contents are used wholly by him. It is 
the constant dipping into cans in retailing small amounts of 
milk which causes the contamination, as noted on p. 18. 



CHAPTER VII 



COST OF PRODUCING AND DISTRIBUTING 
CLEAN MILK 



A FEW words first in regard to the cost of production 
and profits on ordinary milk sold to creameries, for 
butter and other products ; and for consumption as 
market milk in cities and towns throughout the United 
States. 

It has become only too evident to readers of dairy 
literature of late that a large number, perhaps the majority, 
of milch cows in this country do not yield any considerable 
profit to their owners. Thus, in a report of the Ohio Cow 
Census in Hoard's Dairyman* of April 28, 1905, we find that 
among ^j herds representing 635 cows, with a yearly 
average of 3,839 lbs. of milk per cow, the average yearly 
return was $29.93 per cow. Among this number of 2)^ herds, 
29 herds were kept at a loss, and out of the whole ^y, only 
26 herds paid a yearly profit of over $5 per cow to the 
owners. 

Yet in this same report we note one herd of 24 cows, 
mixed breeds, yielding annually per cow an average of 



*In the Cow Census made by Hoard's Dairyman in Vermont (see the 
number for August ist, 1905), it was shown that out of 100 dairies, 69 did not pay 
the cost of keeping the cows. The cows were natives or grades. 

The estimaled cost of feeding ranged from $33.50 to $41.00 per cow, per year. 
The annual profit per cow, of the 31 dairies which paid any profit, varied from 
43 cents to I32.57. The losses per cow annually, in the dairies which did not pay 
ran from 2 cents to $21.46. The production of the dairies varied from 72 to 270 lbs 
of butter fat per cow annually. 



PR OD UC TION AND DIS TRIE UTION 1 1 r 

7,756 lbs. of milk and giving a yearly profit of $167 per 
cow. Again, in this same report, we discover another herd 
which paid its owner an annual average profit of 10 cents 
per cow. How may we explain such an enormous inequality 
in returns ? Let us compare the report of the two herds : 

Herd No. 13 Herd No. 100 

(2 Jerseys, 3 grades) (Mixed breeds) 

Cost of keep per cow yearly. $25.00 $70.00 

No. lbs. milk per cow yearly 3,048 7,756 

Profit annually per cow |o. 10 $167.00 

Returns from $r.oo invested in feed. $r.oo l3-4o 

Average price of milk per 100 lbs. . . $0.62 $3-05 

In herd No. 12, we find that the annual cost of keep 
was $25, and the yield 3,048 lbs. of milk, which brought 
82 cents per 100 lbs. at the creamery, or a little less than 
7 cents a gallon the year round. A gallon of milk weighs 
8.6 lbs. Herd No. 100 paid yearly $167 per cow, while the 
cost of keep was $70 per cow, and the milk brought a little 
over 25 cents a gallon, or over 6 cents a quart the year 
round. 

Certain remedies there are for such a disparity in 
profits, but, under some conditions, this disparity can only 
be remedied in part. 

In the cases in point, the most essential cause of the 
difference in profits in the two herds is the difference in 
price, which depends upon circumstances. The owner of 
herd No. 100 was near enough to the city of Cleveland to 
retail his milk for over 6 cents a quart, whereas the product 
of herd No. 12 was sold for less than 2 cents to a creamery. 

In this comparison, there are, however, other points to 
consider : the fact that the cows in herd No. 100 gave over 
twice the quantity of milk yielded by the cows in herd 
No. 12 is an important matter. This may have partly 



I 1 2 CLEAN MILK 

depended upon the care of the cows and feeding, but was 
very probably chiefly due to the character of the cows 
themselves. While it would be impossible for any one to 
make much profit in milk at less than 2 cents a quart, yet it 
may be accepted that, unless a cow comes up to a certain 
standard in regard to quantity and quality of milk, it is 
unprofitable to keep her, and the sooner that cow and her 
owner are parted the better. Just what that standard 
should be will depend somewhat on local conditions, and 
prices of food, and milk ; but, in a general way, the cow 
that will not average about 10 quarts daily during 10 months 
of the year (6,000 lbs. annually), and whose milk falls much 
below 4 per cent, on the average (unless the quantity is 
very large), will not pay to keep. In this region, there are 
many herds of grade Holsteins, containing as many as 
80 to 120 heads, which average 16 quarts and over per cow 
during the summer months — on pasture alone — in the rich 
valley lands. In order to determine whether individual 
cows are profitable, the farmer must weigh the daily amount 
and test the butter fat of each cow's (see p. 176) milk at 
frequent intervals. Each cow's milk should be weighed 
separately, directly the cow is milked, by hanging the milk 
pail on a balance scale and recording the weight on a record 
sheet which is gotten up for this purpose (see Appendix, 
p. 1 76). The record sheet should be kept near the weighing 
balance in a room devoted to this purpose in the barn. To 
determine the percentage of fat in the milk, a composite 
sample — -that is, a sample of a mixture of the same quantity 
of night's and morning's milk of each cow for several days 
■ — should be examined by the Babcock test at the beginning 
and end of each month. The composite sample is obtained 
by pouring the fresh milk from one pail to another, and 



PR OD UCTION AND DIS TRIE UTION 1 1 3 

from the mixed milk one should remove a criH with a lone- 
handled dipper at each milking. The gill is placed in a 
clean labelled and covered Mason glass jar, which is shaken 
each time a new sample is added. Fifteen drops of formalin 
or a corrosive sublimate tablet will preserve the samples for 
days, and two ounces, or half a cup of the composite 
sample, is sufficient for the Babcock test. If a Babcock 
tester is not at hand, the testing may be done at a creamery 
for a small charge. The number of pounds of milk yielded 
by each cow monthly should be multiplied by the average 
per cent, of fat in her milk. This will give the number of 
pounds of fat in the cow's milk for the month, which should 
be the basis for comparing her value. The average per 
cent, of fat in her milk for the month will be obtained by 
adding- together the results of the two fat tests and dividino- 
the sum by two. Then the general care and feeding 
governs to a considerable degree the quantity of milk, and 
intelligent study of a good newspaper devoted to the dairy 
industry will prove of much value In this respect. As we 
have repeatedly emphasized, the cleaner the milk the better 
it is for any purpose, and the farmer who devotes himself ta 
producing a clean milk should receive a larger price for it. 
Of course, local conditions will largely determine the advisa- 
bility of investing extra money and time in the food, care 
and cost of cows, but very rarely will it pay to keep cows, 
which do not pay for their keep. It may be necessary to 
keep cows for their manure, but this is usually considered 
as merely offsetting the cost of their care, and so the cost of 
keeping cows is commonly figured in estimating the cost of 
their food. The yearly cost of feeding a cow varies from 
$17 to $70, averaging perhaps throughout the United 
States about $35. At the experiment stations, with the 



114 CLEAN MILK 

best selected stock and breeds and the most expert care, 
the cost of producing i quart of milk varies from 0.7 to 
2.9 cents, according to breed and individual characteristics 
of cows. When a farmer receives on the average 2 cents 
or less per quart for milk, there can be little profit to 
him. Yet two cents is about the price paid for years to 
farmers who have shipped ordinary market milk to New 
York City. 

It has been stated by many authorities that one-third 
of the cows in this country is kept at a loss ; that one-third 
just about pays for Its keep, and that one-third pays a profit 
to their owners. 

The most striking fact which impresses one in this 
whole matter of profit in milk production is the folly of 
keeping poor cows. h. poor cow makes 2, poor owner. 

The production and transportation of clean milk is 
attended with much greater expense than that of ordinary 
or " market" milk. 

The following figures, showing the cost of milk produc- 
tion and distribution, must, of course, be considered only 
approximate. Local conditions alter circumstances tremen- 
dously. Thus In this region (Seattle, Wash.), the climate 
is so mild that Ice has to be used on the milk during trans- 
portation on the railroad and delivery In the city wagon the 
year round. Then again, the city is very hilly and the 
streets, many of them, very bad, and the milk route Is not 
concentrated In a thickly settled district. 

We may place the average cost of the production 
throughout the country of ordinary market milk at 2 to 
2^ cents per quart as the result of the figures obtained 
from the experiment stations. Perhaps the average figure 
paid the farmer for ordinary market milk hereabouts is 



PROD UCTION AND DIS TRIE UTION 1 1 5 

3^/^ cents a quart. This does not differ materially from the 
price paid in many parts of the country. 

The cost of producing clean milk in this region, over 
and above that of ordinary milk, may be set down at 2 cents 
a quart. This includes the extra care necessitated in the 
barn and dairy, the fuel for running the boiler, the ice, etc. 
In the milk room, there is the washing and sterilizing of all 
the bottles and apparatus, and the bottling of milk and 
packing of the bottles in boxes with ice. The farmer must 
make a considerable outlay for the paraphernalia in his milk 
room, but the bottles, in this vicinity, are supplied by the 
distributors in the city. 

The cost of transporting milk by rail in bottles to the 
city, some 30 miles, is i cent a quart in this region, and it 
costs about the same in other cities. This fio-ure includes 
the cost of carriag^e for the oralvanized iron box, holdinof 
one dozen bottles and ice, the whole weighing 68 lbs., and 
also the return of empty bottles and cases to the farm. 

The cost of distributinor clean milk is much sfreaterthan 
ordinary milk, when ice is used, owing to the weight of the 
ice and cases holding the bottles and the fact that custom- 
ers of high priced milk are apt to be scattered about. The 
cost of distribution of milk has been set down at two cents 
a quart, but three cents a quart would be nearer the mark 
in this vicinity for milk sold on ice the year round. The 
farmer should then receive at least six cents a quart net for 
certified milk as the minimum figure, according to my ex- 
perience in this region, or about double what he receives 
for ordinary market milk. This is a uniform price for the 
year around. For the ordinary milk he gets from nine 
cents to sixteen cents per gallon, at different seasons, and it 
retails at about seven cents a quart. 



Il6 CLEAN MILK 

The distributer of milk, if he pays the farmer six centsr 
per quart and one cent per quart freight, should get eleven 
cents as a minimum price per quart to make any profit. This 
figure is a low estimate when various unavoidable losses are 
taken into account, as repairs and deterioration of milk 
boxes, harness, sickness and death of horses, loss of accounts, 
bottles, etc. I believe that seven to eight cents a quart for 
the farmer, and twelve to fifteen cents a quart for the dis- 
tributer of clean milk in the city, is a much safer estim- 
ate as a basis on which a profitable business for both may 
be done.* It is impossible to keep up the standard of clean 
milk unless a reasonable profit is being made at both ends 
of the business. 

Every step by which the milk Is improved costs money 
in labor or material, and it has been my experience that it is 
useless to expect the farmer to carry out all the necessary 
details of cleanliness unless he can really afford to do so. 
The actual price at which certified milk retails varies in 
various cities from eight to twenty cents per quart. Rich 
milk, as milk containing five per cent, fat, should bring a 
higher price, though it is not preferable for infant food — 
rather the reverse, as we have noted. 

In this vicinity there has been an attempt to employ one 
farm as a bottling station in which the utensils of all the 
farms are washed and sterilized and to which milk, which has 
been milked and cooled at neighboring farms, is brought. 
When the milk was supplied by the farm doing the bottling, 

* In Hoard's Dairyman of a recent date the proportionate receipts from a. 
quart of milk retailing for 8 cents in New York City, are given as follows : 

Cents 

Producer receives 2.75 

Railroad for transporting, receives 0.5 

Dealers handling, bottling and distributing the same, receive. . 4.75 

8.00 



PRODUCTION AND DISTRIBUTION 1 1 7 

and one other about a mile away, the result was very good. 
The highest number of bacteria in the milk bottled from 
these two farms was 17,000 per cubic centimeter during six 
months. Pressure being brought to bear to increase the 
milk supply, two more farms were taken into the combination 
with disastrous results. This unfortunate outcome was 
largely due to the fact that the owners of the two farms 
which were taken into the combination last had not time 
given them to arrange their barns and milk-rooms properly, 
and had not got into the routine necessary to produce clean 
milk. Whether an arrangement of this kind for producing 
certified milk is wholly practicable is somewhat doubtful. 
There are so many more opportunities for contamination of 
the milk with dirt and germs. If a like attempt is elsewhere 
undertaken, the milk from each farm should be examined 
once a week before bottling it and mixing it with milk from 
the other farms, to ascertain the number of bacteria and 
the amount of fat in the milk. The plan has the advantage 
of bringing several farmers to a higher standard than would 
otherwise be possible, and enables the farmer who supplies 
all the dairy apparatus to make a more economical use of 
his plant. 

When an individual wishes to begin to sell clean milk in 
a neighborhood in which certified milk is unknown, it is well 
for him first to interest the local medical profession in the 
project. The local medical society, or individual physicians, 
should form a committee with laboratory facilities. The work 
can be done under the committee's direction by an intelligent 
druggist. Any dairy, supplying clean milk, may receive a cer- 
tificate from the medical commission, if the milk fulfils the 
required standard, as the result of weekly examinations. 
Providing, however, that the milk has fulfilled all the re- 



Ii8 CLEAN MILK 

quirements of the milk commission for a probationar)^ 
period of at least two months prior to the granting of a 
certificate. 

Estimation of the Value of Milk and Cream for 
Ordinary Purposes. 

The value of milk and cream throughout the country is 
generally determined by the price of butter. And the butter 
maker pays for milk or cream according to the pounds of 
butter fat each contains. Clean milk or cream of the purity 
of the certified milk or cream, however, bring a price greatly 
above that fixed by a butter-fat valuation. 

In churning a pound of butter fat (in milk or cream) 
into butter there is a gain ; that is, a pound of butter fat will 
produce more than a pound of butter. The weight of the 
butter fat subtracted from the weight of the butter (made 
from it) is the overrun.* The reason for this gain in churn- 
ing butter fat into butter is that there are ingredients in the 
milk or cream, and also the salt contributed by the butter 
maker, which add to the fat in the butter. Thus butter con- 
tains on the average about 84 per cent, of fat, and the remain- 
ing 16 per cent, consists of water (12 per cent.), and curd 
(i per cent.), salts (2.5 per cent.), and milk sugar (0.5 per 
cent.). This is the average composition of butter,f but the 
water may vary in amount from 8 to 16 per cent, and the 
fat proportionately. The overrun, then, does not depend 



*For detailed information concerning overrun, see Bull. 129, Some Creamery 
Problems, E. H. Farrington, Univ. Wis. Agric. Exper. Sta., to which the author is 
greatly indebted. 

fSince the U. S. Pure Food Act of 1906 requires that butter shall contain 82.5 
per cent, of butter fat as a minimum, it follows that creamery butter will not in 
future exceed this requirement. This, therefore, may be regarded as the present 
average content of fat in butter. 



PROD UCTION AND DIS TRIE UTION 1 1 9 

upon nor refer to the percentage of fat in butter. It is al- 
ways estimated by determining the fat in the milk or cream 
by the Babcock test, and then subtracting the weight of the 
fat from the weicrht of the resultincr butter. 

The amount of butter which can be made from a oriven 
weight of cream depends upon the amount of fat it contains. 
The richer in fat it is, the less the loss of fat in the butter- 
milk in churning. Thus buttermilk contains about 0.3 per 
cent, of fat, and cream containing 15 per cent, of fat would 
yield almost four times as much buttermilk as cream con- 
taining 40 per cent. fat. Moreover, the buttermilk from rich 
cream contains absolutely less fat (less than 0.3 percent, fat) 
than that derived from churning thin cream. Then there 
are mechanical losses of fat from cream and butter stickinor 
to various utensils used in the course of makine and hand- 
ling butter. This naturally Influences the amount of butter 
which can be made from a given quantity of fat in milk or 
cream. Two to five pounds of butter-fat may thus be wasted 
for every hundred pounds handled. 

The Overrun. — As an example we will estimate the 
overrun in making 116 pounds of butter from 2,500 pounds 
of 4 per cent. milk. We first determine the weight of fat 
in the milk : 2, 500 pounds multlpliedby. 04 equals 100 pounds 
of fat. Subtracting this from 116 pounds of butter made 
from it gives us the overrun as 16 pounds, or 16 per cent., 
because it is 16 per cent, of the 100 pounds of fat in the milk. 

The overrun is usually less on account of various losses. 
Thus in skimming the milk in the separator there is a loss of 
about 0.1 per cent, of fat contained in the skim milk; after 
churning there is the loss in the buttermilk we have noted 
equal to 0.3 per cent, fat in the. buttermilk; and there are 
the mechanical losses we have referred to, equivalent to about 



I20 CLEAN milk: 

2 to 5 per cent, of the total fat In the milk. So of the loo 
j)Ounds of fat in the 2,500 pounds of 4 per cent, milk there 
may be only 93.13 pounds of fat available, which would 
make 1 10.86 pounds of butter containing 84 per cent, of fat. 
Subtractingfrom this 1 10.86 pounds of butter the 100 pounds 
of fat contained in the 2,500 pounds of milk gives 10.86 
pounds, or 10.86 per cent, as the amount of the overrun. 
The overrun varies, not only owing to the conditions noted, 
but also as the churningf leaves more or less water in the 
butter, and according to the accuracy of testing the milk or 
cream for fat, and in weighing the same. The normal range 
in overrun for milk varies from 10 to 15 per cent. An over- 
run above or below these fiofures demands an investioration. 
The overrun from cream is somewhat higher than these 
figures, since there is no loss from skimming, as from milk. 
The cream overrun varies from 16 to 20 per cent. 

Estimation of the overrun is not in any way essential 
in calculating the money due patrons of a creamery for milk 
or cream. The simplest, fairest, and generally most satis- 
factory way is to weigh and test each sample of milk or cream 
of the patron's for butterfat and subtracting the cost of 
making the butter from its selling price, to give the balance 
of the returns to the patrons in proportion to the butterfat 
they supplied. Thus, If 232 pounds of butter were made 
during a given time from 200 pounds of butterfat, and the 
butter sold at 25 cents a pound, the butter fetched $58.00. 
Subtracting from this 4 cents a pound for making gives 
$48.75 to be divided among the patrons according to the 
amount of butterfat each supplied. 48.70 divided by 200 
gives us 24.35 cents as the price to be paid each patron for 
each pound of fat supplied In his milk or cream. The fol- 
lowing correction should, however, be made : 



PRODUCTION AND DISTRIBUTION 1 2 1 

The milk patron is paid for all the butterfat in his milk 
brought to the creamery while the cream patron is not, as 
part of the butterfat in his milk remains at the farm in the 
skim milk. Besides, he saves the creamery the expense of 
skimming the milk. Therefore, in calculating the amount of 
fat supplied the creamery by its patrons the cream patron 
should be credited not only with the fat actually present in 
his cream, but to it is added 3 per cent, of its total to put 
him on the same basis as the milk patron. (The 0.12 fat 
lost in the skim milk from hand separators equals about 3 
per cent of total fat in the whole milk.) 

Thus, supposing four patrons supplied the 200 pounds 
of fat, as follows : 

Corrected Weight 
Fat. of Fat. 

Milk patron .... 32.5 lbs. 32.5 lbs. 

«' 45-5 lbs. 45-5 lbs. 

Cream " .... 62 X .03=63.8 63.8 

♦' " .... 60 X .03=61.8 61.8 

200 lbs. 203.6 lbs. 

We correct the weight of fat supplied by the cream 
patrons, as above, and divide the price the butterfat brought 
($48.70) by the corrected weight of the fat (203.6 lbs.), 
which gives 23.92 cents. This is the price per pound of 
butterfat to pay the patron of the creamery according to 
the corrected weights of fat in the last column above. 

To consider this matter more in detail, especially in 
regard to the price a given quantity of milk will bring if 
sold in different forms, suppose we take, for example, 290 
gallons of milk. A gallon of milk weighs 8.66 pounds, 290 
gallons of milk will then weigh 2,500 pounds, and, containing 
4 per cent, of fat, will give us 100 pounds of fat. In con- 
verting this into butter the first process will be to skim the 
milk in a separator, which will give us a loss at the creamery 



122 CLEAN MILK 

of O.I percent, fat in the skim milk. The skim milk may be 
assumed to be 85 per cent, of the whole milk ; 85 per cent, 
of 2,500 pounds equals 2,125 pounds skim milk ; 2,125 mul- 
tiplied by o.ooi equals 2.12 pounds of fat in the skim milk. 
Subtracting this from the 100 pounds of fat in the 290 gal- 
lons of milk gives us 97.88 pounds of fat in the cream arising 
from this amount of milk; 326 pounds of 30 per cent, cream 
will contain just about this amount of fat, that is, 97.8 pounds. 
In churning this into butter there will be a loss of 0.3 per 
cent, of the total fat in the buttermilk. The amount of 
buttermilk is the difference between the weight of the cream 
and the fat in the cream, or, roughly, 10 per cent, of the whole 
milk. In 326 pounds of 30 per cent, cream there are 97.8 
pounds of fat ; subtracting this from the weight of the cream 
gives us the weight of the buttermilk, 228 pounds; mul- 
tiplying this by 0.003 equals .684 pounds, or the loss of fat 
in buttermilk ; subtracting this loss of fat in buttermilk from 
the fat in the 30 per cent, cream gives us 97. 1 2 pounds of fat 
for butter. This would make 1 1 7 pounds of butter contain- 
incr 83 per cent, of fat. (To arrive at this result we divide 
97.12 by 0.83, equals 117.) Then, to get the (theoretical) 
overrun, we subtract the 100 pounds of fat in the original 
milk from the 100 pounds of butter made from it (117), 
which gives us i 7 as the percentage of overrun. We will, 
however, have mechanical losses equal to 2 or 3 pounds, so 
we will consider that we shall actually get 114 pounds of 
butter from 290 gallons of 4 per cent, milk.* With butter 
wholesale at 22 cents a pound, and subtracting 4 cents for 



*The cost of making a pound of butter varies from four cents to a fraction 
less than two cents in the largest creameries. In calculating the amount of butter 
which can be made from a given amount of butterfat we add one-sixth for butterfat 
in milk and one-seventh for butterfat in cream. 



PR OD UC TION AND DIS TRIE UTION 1 2 3 

making, the butter would net the farmer only $20.05 ^o'' ^"^i^ 
290 gallons of milk. 

Cream is often bought in cities by ice cream and cream 
dealers at a rate of 2 cents (more or less) above the value 
of the cream for butter; that is, if butter was 22 cents the 
cream would be bought at a valuation of butter at 24 cents ; 
326 pounds of 30 per cent, cream equals about 40 gallons 
(a gallon of 30 per cent, cream weighs nearly 8 pounds 
actually; if free from much air or gas, 8.3 pounds); this, 
making 114 pounds of butter valued at 24 cents, 2 cents 
above current butter price, would give $27.36 as price for 
290 gallons of milk in form of cream. In either case the 
farmer has the skim milk to feed, which may be roughly 
valued at 35 cents per 100 pounds for feeding, and 1 1 cents 
additional (in passing through the calves) for fertilizer ; 
21.25 pounds of skim milk at 46 cents per 100 pounds equals 
$9-77 I 290 gallons of 4 per cent, milk may bring the farmer 12 
cents a gallon net if sold for city consumption, equals $34.80. 

For clean, pure 30 per cent, cream, bottled at the farm, 
as much as $1.20 per gallon should begotten. If the cream 
is shipped in cans on ice or in special ice-containing cans 
(see p. 87), it should bring $1.00 per gallon for a clean arti- 
cle. If the milk were sold in bottles from the farm as cer- 
tified milk it should bring 7 cents a quart, at least, which 
amounts to $81.20 for the 290 gallons. 

The returns from 290 gallons of 4 per cent, milk, sold 
as follows, are : 

As 114 pounds of butter, at 22 cts. per lb. with 

value added of skim milk to farmer %2p 29 

As ordinary milk in cans at 12 cents per frallon. ... 34 80 

As cream, with value of skim milk added 37 13 

Clean, cooled cream shipped on ice in cans, with 

value of skim milk added 49 77 

Clean, cooled bottled cream, with value of skim 

milk added 57 77 

Certified bottled milk bi 20 



124 



CLEAN MILK 



These figures, of course, can not be taken as applying- 
precisely to conditions in any given locality. They are only 
given to show how to figure approximately relative returns 
from milk products, and It will be found that the returns for 
ordinary market milk are about the same as can be gotten 
from a creamery for butter. Moreover, the higher returns 
received from the sale of bottled certified milk must not be 
taken as necessarily indicating that the maximum profit 
accrues from selling milk in this form. It may well be that 
the extra cost of labor, fuel, ice and plant, required for its 
production, will amount to 2 or 3 cents a quart. 

It is impossible to fix the value of skim milk for feeding 
and fertilizer, as it depends upon such variable factors as the 
value of veal and pork, the price of other food stuffs, the 
value of milk in the locality and the knowledge of the person 
using it as to the best way to feed it. Skim milk is said to 
be worth $1.00 a hundredweight in midwinter to feed to 
hens with corn meal, while for feeding calves it is valued 
from 20 to 40 cents a hundredweight, according as the price 
of veal varies from $3 to $5 per 100 pounds. To be fed 
with most economy to calves it should be given in propor- 
tion of two to three pounds of skim milk to every pound of 
meal. I have known skim milk to be used with excellent 
result when poured on the soil as a fertilizer in the cultiva- 
tion of cauliflowers. H. B. Gurler claims that for feeding 
pigs skim milk is worth one-half as much per 100 pounds as 
corn is worth per bushel. 



CHAPTER VIII. 



SOME HINTS CONCERNING MILK 
DISTRIBUTION 



ONE of the chief difficulties to contend with in retailing 
milk is the almost instinctive desire of the public to 
get their milk in the early morning hours. Custom- 
ers apparently labor under the false impression that milk 
left In the early morning hours is a product of the night, like 
the dew, or early morning paper on the doorstep. As a 
matter of fact, milk which is delivered before 8 a. m. at the 
customer's door is usually twenty-four to thirty-six hours old. 
This happens because milk trains do not often arrive before 
8 A. M., and the milk on these trains represents that milked 
the night before and in the early morning of the day of 
arrival in the city. This milk is often delivered in the early 
morning of the day following that of its arrival in the city. 

Although we have seen that clean milk may be kept 
sweet on ice for several weeks (see p. 14), yet we have also 
learned that germs will develop in milk at a temperature of 
40 degrees Fahrenheit, or lower, and that they may increase 
tremendously at low temperatures in time (see pp. 6, 14). 
It is safer, therefore, that clean milk be not sold when 
it is twenty-four hours old ; and the requirements of some 
medical societies certifying milk forbids its sale after it Is 
twenty-four hours old. 

The milk arriving in the city on any morning will re- 
present the night's milk of the previous day and the milk 



126 



CLEAN MILK 



which has been milked very early on the morning of its 
arrival. Or, as in the writer's experience, the milk arrives 
very early in the morning, before 7 a. m., representing the 
milk of the previous night, while the morning's milk arrives 
at noon and the delivery of the milk is continued from 7 
A. M. to 6 r. M. 

In some localities — where night's milk can not be kept 

Fig. .•;3. 




^ry-m 



Milk Wagon. 



cool — only the morning's milk is sent to the city, the night's 
milk going to the creamery. 

We have found it possible by instructing the customers 
concerning the folly of demanding delivery of milk to their 
doors in the early morning hours to. In a measure, Ignore 
this desire, and so distribute milk during the whole of 
the day, with an intermission of an hour for the men and 
horses at noon. 

The nature of local conditions will determine to aeon- 



HINTS CONCERNING DISTRIBUTION 



127 



siderable extent the cost of delivery and also many of the 
practical details as to the kind of wagon, bottle boxes, use 
of ice in wagons, etc. To obviate overhauling of the boxes 
in the wagons they should not be piled in layers one over 
the other. This may be accomplished by means of a special 
arrangement in the wagon shown In Fig. 33. I have per- 
sonally had no experience with this wagon, but have consid- 

FiG. 34. 




Milk Wagon. 

ered that simplicity is one of the chief aims in any scheme, 
and by making the wagon wide and long enough one can 
carry about all the boxes of bottles proper on the floor. 
Thusthe wagon body may hold fifteen boxes on the floor and 
five or more placed directly on top of the first tier without any 
inconvenience in handling them. These twenty boxes weigh, 
when filled with milk, bottles, and ice, about 1400 pounds 
and constitute a load In a hilly city for two horses. In the 
wagons built under our direction there Is a round hole cut 



128 



CLEAN MILK 



in each side of the top, a few inches above the floor, about, 
fourteen inches in diameter and just back of the driver's 
seat. This permits of bottles being taken out of the boxes 
in the wagon without requiring the driver to mount the front 
of the wagon. A wide step is affixed to the wagon behind 
on which the driver stands when getting bottles at the rear 
of the wagon. The floor is of sheet iron with an open slit 
at either side running the whole length to permit water 
draining through the bottom of the wagon. There is a high 
tail-board, and the upper part of the top of the wagon at 



Fig. 35. 




Delivery Basket. 

the back is closed in for perhaps two feet from the top to 
keep out the sun. Each of the boxes contains twelve quart 
milk bottles and the load consists of 240 quarts. The capac- 
ity of the wagon arranged for sliding bottle-cases is a maxi- 
mum of 204 quarts, but special arrangements might allow of 
greater capacity.. A wagon similar to that seen in Fig. 34 
may be used for bottles alone and will have a capacity of 256 
quarts. The wooden cases slide and may be easily reached 
from the seat as well as rear. Ice can not, however, be used 
on the bottles in this wagon. Such wagons have been used 
with an Ice chamber overhead to secure cooling of the whole 



HINTS CONCERNING DISTRIBUTION 129 

wagon, but with the doors continually open the result in hot 
weather is far from satisfactory.* 

Three sets of bottles are necessary in distributing 
milk, one remaining at the customer's house, one on the 
way to and from the farm, and the other at the farm. 
Two whole sets of bottle boxes are required, one at the farm 
and the other passing two and fro each day. The delivery 
baskets (Fig. 35) are convenient in carrying bottles from the 
waofon to the customer's house. 

The matter of bottles is an important one. The loss 
from the customers not returning empty bottles has wrecked 
many enterprises. The men on the delivery wagons should 
be required to charge patrons for bottles each day and 
credit them with returned bottles. Those bottles not 
returned at the end of the month are charged with the 
milk on the bill. Some loss of this kind and from break- 
age is unavoidable until the paper milk bottle comes into 
general use. The surest way of escaping loss of milk 
bottles, which is one of the most serious causes of disaster, 
and also loss in collection, is through the use of tickets.f 
If milk sells for ten cents a quart and a customer begins to 
take one quart of milk daily he may be sold a package of 
ten tickets for one dollar. Then the first day two tickets 
are withheld, one paying for the milk and the other for the 
bottle. If the bottle is returned the following day and 
another bottle of milk is delivered, then the customer gives 
but one ticket to the milkman. But if the first bottle is not 
returned, then the milkman takes two tickets the second day 
and so on. Every returned bottle by a customer means that 
he receives a ticket or credit for a ticket for each bottle re 

* These milk wagons are made by the Sycamore Wagon Works, Sycamore, 
Illinois. 

f Patrons mnst be instructed not to place milk tickets in empty milk bottles, 
as they otherwise will invariably do. The tickets stick to the bottom of the wet 
bottle and can not be readily removed by the driver of the delivery wagon. 



I30 CLEAN MILK 

turned. And an empty bottle is regarded of the same value 
as one quart of milk. If for any reason a responsible cus- 
tomer is out of tickets and can not pay for more at the mo- 
ment of arrival of the milkman, the latter gives the customer 
a package of tickets and requests the customer to sign a 
regular receipt for same. A bill for the tickets is then sent 
at once through the mail to formally notify the customer of 
his indebtedness. 

Another method which has been employed consists in 
the use of the time-book,* made to fit in the pocket, and 
which the man on the delivery wagon carries. This book 
is ruled so that when the book is opened there are columns 
on each two pages, facing one another, for all the days of the 
month. The customers' names are written down in a col- 
umn on the left-hand edge of the page and his account kept 
on a horizontal line extending across the two open pages. 
Two such books are used, the delivery man having one on 
one day and the other book the following day, so that each 
day one book may be turned into the office for inspection. 
On each day two of the perpendicular columns are used for 
each customer. In the first column is entered the amount 
of milk or cream taken and in the second column the 
number of bottles returned. This method is not so o-ood 
as the preceding. f 

If the milk is to be marketed in the best possible man- 
ner, especially if sold for infants' use, there should be placed 
a parchment paper bottle cap over the ordinary cardboard 
cap. The object of this extra paper cap, w^hich is water- 
proof, is to prevent dust, dirt, and water (from melting ice) 
containing germs from soiling the cap which directly covers 
the milk. In removing the latter any material on the cap 
might easily fall into the milk. The parchment paper caps 

*The names of customers in the account book should follow the same order 
as that observed in visiting them on the milk route. 
\ See page 195 for forms used in keeping accounts. 



HINTS CONCERNING DISTRIBUTION 



l^l 



are held in place by a rubber band about the neck of the 
milk bottle and cost less than one-tenth of a cent when boucrht 
in quantity. On them may be printed the day and month 
the milk is produced, the name of the farm and the fact that 
the milk is certified by a certain commission. The tinfoil 
caps, while presenting an elegant appearance, are very ex- 
pensive, costing five to ten times more than the parchment 
bottle caps. 

The appearance of the men on the delivery wagon is of 
importance. In this region the use of uniforms of khaki in 
summer and corduroy in winter has proved satisfactory. 

Clean milk is of special value in feeding babies. For 
this reason endeavor should be made to inform the public 
of the existence of the opportunity to obtain clean milk by 
those selling this article, and its use for infant feeding should 
be made as easy as possible. 

The following circular has been used for distribution 
among the physicians of a city and embodies matter which 
they may pass on to their patients : 

Certified Milk For Infant Feeding. 

The Dairy desires to call the attention of physicians to the opportunity 
offered them for not only feeding pure milk to infants, but, by means of analyses 
of this milk and cream, to prescribe an infant food of known composition. 

A dipper is furnished by which the top-milk may be removed from the bottle. 
The upper 9 ounces of the milk contains approximately 13 per cent, of fat when 
thus removed. One part of this top-milk with 5 parts of water gives Fat, 2.1 per 
cent.; Proteids, 0.6, suitable for feeding infants from 3rd to 14th day of age. 
Diluted with 4 parts of water, gives Fat 2.6 per cent.; Proteids 0.8 per cent.; suit- 
able for feeding from 2nd to 6th week of age. Diluted with 3 parts of water, gives 
Fat 3.2 per cent.; Proteids i.o per cent.; suitable for feeding from 6th to nth week. 
For feeding from nth week to 5th month, the upper pint is removed with dipper 
from the bottle, and diluted with i^^ parts of water, gives Fat 3.4 per cent.; Pro- 
teids 1.45 per cent. The milk for feeding from the fifth to loth month is obtained 
by pouring off the upper pint from the bottle and diluting it with an equal quan- 
tity of water. This gives Fat 4.0 per cent.; Proteids 2.0 per cent. 

Instead of water, barley water, lime water or dextrinized gruels may of 
course be used as a diluent. Milk sugar may be added in proportion of i ounce 
to 20 of the milk mixture. 



132 



CLEAN MILK 



The milk is obtained from tested cows and under the most cleanly condi- 
tions pertaining to the animals, stables and paraphernalia. The milk is drawn 
into covered pails, through a small aperture in the top, and falls through sterile 
cheesecloth into the bottom of the pail. It is immediately aerated and cooled, is 
put into bottles at the farm, and kept on ice until it reaches the consumer. The 
milk contains nearly 5 per cent, butter fat and averages but 8,000 to 10,000 bac- 
teria to the c. c. 

It will not be necessary to sterilize this milk, and the modified milk mixtures 
above recommended will be found much superior to dirty milk which has been 
sterilized and modified. The top-milk should be removed from the bottles on 
their arrival, and kept on ice, to give good results. This milk is subject to fre- 
quent bacteriological and chemical tests by Dr. and Mr. at the 
County Medical Society Laboratory. The formulae are taken from Holt, as re- 
commended by him for healthy infants, and the following table is also from his 
book : 

Schedule for Feeding a Healthy Child During the First 
Nine Months. 




I 

II 

III 

IV 

V 



2 to 14 days 

2 weeks to 5 weeks. . . 
5 weeks to i o weeks . , 
ID weeks to 4 months 
4 months to 9 months 



No. of 


Inter- 


No. of 




feed- 


val be- 


night 


Quantity 


ings 


tween 


feedings 


for one 


in 34 


feeding's 


(10 P. M. 


feeding. 


hours. 


by day. 


to 7 A. M.). 




10 


2 hours 


2 


1-2K oz 


10 


a " 


2 


2-3X " 


8 


2K" 


I 


3-4K " 


7 


3 *• 


I 


4-6 «' 


6 


3 " 





5-8 " 



Quantity 
for 34 

hours. 



10-25 OZ 

20-32 " 

24-36 " 
28-42 " 
30-48 " 



One of the chief difficulties physicians have in prescribing 
milk mixtures for babies is their ignorance of the exact com- 
position of the milk and cream which their patients will use. 
The milk from the same herds will be of very uniform compo- 
sition, varying somewhat with the season, but hardly enough 
to make any material difference in calculations for infant 
feeding. The dipper used for removing the cream is shown 
in Plate D, and is two and one-fourth inches long and three- 
fourths of an inch in diameter. It holds a tablespoonful or 
one-half an ounce of milk, and is used to remove any part of 
the top milk without mixing the milk with the cream. A 
siphon (Plate D) is also furnished customers to remove the 
skim milk from the milk bottle. This we find Is generally 
employed and liked by families who use cream on the table, 



PlaTK D 



Showing Dipper and Siphon for Removing Cream and Milk respectively. 

(See page 132.) 



HINTS CONCERNING DISTRIBUTION 133 

and at ten cents a bottle for milk containing five per cent, of 
fat the customers get as much, or more, cream than could 
be bought for this sum and have the skim milk to use in 
cooking. The siphon, of glass tubing, three-eighths of 
an inch outside diameter, has a short arm, just lono- 
enough (9^^ in.) to reach to the very bottom of the milk 
bottle, and a long arm five inches longer. The siphon 
is filled with clean water by holding the shorter arm under 
a water faucet, and when the water appears at the end of 
the longer arm this end is closed by the thumb and the 
shorter arm is inserted to the bottom of the bottle and the 
thumb released, allowing the tube to rest in the bottle. 
First the water flows out and then the milk. The cream 
gradually settles in the bottle until the lower border of cream 
touches the bottom of the bottle, when the siphon is at once 
removed. 



CHAPTER IX. 



MILK INSPECTION.* 



The duties and tests of the milk Inspector are divided 
into those performed In and out of the laboratory. Out of 
the laboratory, the tests are mainly those of the senses. A 
temperature test is, however, required by the most enlight- 
ened cities, and when the milk is found to" have a tempera- 
ture above 50*^ F. it Is condemned. The Inspector, In taking 
samples of milk for the laboratory, should thoroughly stir 
the milk. This Is best accomplished by " stirrers, " made 
like the dasher of the old-fashioned dasher churn. The two 
chief reasons for agitating the milk are to thoroughly mix 
the cream for determining the fat, and, again, to estimate 
by a bacteriological test the number of germs. In the latter 
case It is especially Important, as ninety-nine per cent, of the 
o-erms in milk become entangled in the cream. Two ounces 
of milk are sufficient for a fat or bacteriological test, and 
four ounces for a test for preservatives. The inspector seals 
the corks of the bottle, and, also, should place some sealing 
wax on the edge of the label, as the labels are often soaked 
off and placed on a similar sealed bottle. This happens 
where the Inspector is required to give a duplicate sealed 
sample to the milkman ; and the milkman, when he knows 
his sample Is adulterated, may get a sealed bottle given to 
another milkman (which contains pure milk) and take the 



The author is indebted to Mr. A. G. Smith, city chemist, Seattle, for much 
aid in the preparation of this chapter. 



' . Af/LA' INSPECTION 1 35 

1 
label from the aaulterated sample and place it on the pure 

sample. He then brings the pure sample into court with 

the label number the inspector placed on his adulterated 

sample and in a bottle with an unbroken official seal on 

the cork. 

Milk may be condemned on account of visible dirt. 
This is ascertained by straining- milk from one can to another 
through cheesecloth, or by straining only the bottom por- 
tions of several cans. The taste may be bad, as from the odor 
of manure, or from improper feeding, or disease (mastitis) 
of the cows, and may suffice to condemn the milk. The 
color may be unusual, as when the cream is highly colored 
on milk which has been obtained from cows recently calved. 
Curdling of the milk on boiling will occur if the sample is 
colostrum. The brilliantly colored milks, caused by special 
bacteria, are seldom seen in this country. The odor of milk 
may be bad from various causes, as from improper feeding 
of the cows, manure in the milk, or from the milk remaining 
a long while in dirty barns. Sour milk may be condemned. 
Stringy milk is not uncommon, but is generally only notice- 
able several hours after milking, and so usually escapes 
attention until in the consumer's hands. The existence of 
garget in cows may produce stringy milk ; also it occurs in 
the milk of cows which have been milked late in the period of 
lactation ; certain herbs are said to cause it. It is somewhat 
doubtful whether the condition is always due to special germs 
or whether it is caused, at times, by chemical substances 
(ferments) which occur in certain plants. Fishy milk is caused 
by rusty cans, and cOws inhabiting pastures containing stag- 
nant pools of water may yield milk with this odor or taste. 

Milk which is to be examined to estimate the number 
of germs it contains should only be placed in bottles which 



I Z^ CLEAN MILK 

have been boiled for twenty minutes or sterilized in a regular 
sterilizer. The corks should be sterilized in the same manner. 
The bottle must be filled to the cork and be packed in a 
vessel with enouofh ice to last until the examination is made. 

Milk Preservatives. — The most commonly used pre- 
servatives are formaldehyde, borax and boric acid. Occa- 
sionally salicylic acid and sodium carbonate are employed. 
Formaldehyde may be detected, during the process of deter- 
mining fat by the Babcock test, by observing the color of 
the line of contact of the acid with the milk. When pure 
milk is used for the Babcock test, the color of this line is 
dirty brown, but, when formaldehyde is present in the milk, 
a distinct purple hue will appear at the junction of the acid 
and milk. 

This test may be applied in other ways by using a 
separate sample of milk. Place about 20 cubic centimeters* 
of milk in a small glass vessel, dilute with an equal volume 
of water, and add commercial sulphuric acid, allowing it to 
flow slowly down the inside of the vessel. If formaldehyde 
is present the purple color will appear at the junction of 
the acid and milk. 

Boric acid or borax are detected by adding to a few 
drops of milk, contained in a white dish, a drop or two of 
hydrochloric acid, and then several drops of a saturated al- 
coholic solution of turmeric. Heat the dish gently for a 
few minutes and. If boric acid or borax are present, a pink 
or dark red color will appear. Cool, and add a drop of am- 
monia, when a dark blue-green should be seen. 



*A cubic centimeter (metric system) is a volume of fluid equal to i6 drops of 
water. Any apothecary can prepare the substances required to make the above 
tests and at the same time could perform the tests with the assistance of the des- 
cription given above and show the farmer or dairyman how to perform them him- 
self. 



♦ MILK INSPECTION 137 

Sodium carbonate is detected by adding to the sus- 
pected sample of milk an equal volume of alcohol and then 
two drops of a one per cent, solution of rosolic acid. If 
sodium carbonate is present a red-rose color will appear. 
The test may be performed with more certainty if a com- 
parison test is made with a sample of milk known to be 
pure. 

Salicylic acid is rarely used but may be detected by add- 
ing a few drops of sulphuric acid to a small quantity of milk 
and then shaking gently with a mixture of ether and petrolic 
ether. The mixture is made of equal parts of ether and 
petrolic ether and equal volumes of acidulated milk and ether 
mixture are taken. Then, after standing for several hours, 
the upper ethereal solution is poured off and the remaining 
liquid is evaporated in a porcelain evaporating dish. Add, 
to the residue on the white evaporating dish, a few drops of 
water and, if salicylic acid is present, a drop of ferric chlor- 
ide solution will produce a violent or purple color on being 
added to the solution. 

It sometimes happens that It is desirable to determine 
whether milk has been heated above the proper temperature 
of pasteurization. To test this, add to a few cubic centi- 
meters of milk a few drops of a freshly prepared solution of 
diamido-benzene (i part of latter to 4 of water), and then a 
few drops of hydrogen peroxide. Unheated milk gives a 
blue color when thus treated, but milk heated over 174.2° 
F. gives no color. 

The simplest test for preservatives is to place some 
milk in a warm place (at temperature of 80° to 90°F) in a 
corked, clean bottle for 24 hours. If it does not sour or 
curdle the addition of a preservative may properly be sus- 
pected, unless the milk has been pasteurized. The tests 



:38 CLEAN MILK 

described on pp. 136-7 may then be tried to determine posi- 
tively the presence or absence of preservatives. 

For testing the acidity of milk, an alkali and phenolphth- 
alein are commonly employed. The basis of this test rests 
on the fact that phenolphthalein turns pink in the presence 
of an alkali and is colorless in the presence of acid. There- 
fore in the tests, by adding a known quantity of alkali to a 
known quantity of milk and phenolphthalein, we may know 
just how much acidity is present in the milk. For when 
enough alkali has been added to the milk and phenolphthal- 
ein to turn the mixture pink, we know that all the acid in 
the milk has been neutralized and the mixture is becoming 
alkaline. 

Roughly speaking, increased acidity in milk means 
increase in number of lactic acid bacilli. The degree of 
acidity is commonly tested by health boards in cities to de- 
termine the fitness of milk for food. But, as has been 
recently shown by Bergey, the acid test will not apply to 
pasteurized milk. There may be hundreds of millions of 
germs In pasteurized milk without marked acidity. This 
happens because the germs are not of the acid forming type 
but belong chiefly to the hay bacillus group (B. subtllis). 

These are not usually rated as disease germs, but they 
make the milk less digestible and nutritious and may pro- 
duce substances in the milk which cause severe vomiting 
and diarrhoea in infants. 

By far the easiest and most convenient method of test- 
ing milk or cream for acidity, for those not versed In chem- 
istry. Is by means of (Farrington's) alkaline tablets, which may 
be had of any wholesale dairy supply company. Milk which 
contains more than 0.2 per cent, of acid (lactic acid) Is not 
considered sweet, and the acidity of sweet cream varies from 



MILK INSPECTION 139 

0.15 to 0.2 per cent. The Farrington tablet contains an 
alkali and phenolphthalein. Two tablets are dissolved in i 
ounce of water and this Is added to an ounce of milk. If 
the mixture remains pink, then the milk contains less than 
0.2 per cent of acid, but if the pink coloration fades and 
disappears It shows that the mixture contains more than 
this amount of acid and Is unfit for retailing, for pasteuriz- 
ing, or for cheese or butter making. A more exact method 
of using the tablets for testing the acidity of cream may be 
done. This Is very useful for the butter maker in informing 
him of the progress of the ripening of cream, and also 
in showing whether or no two lots of cream may be mixed 
safely, and again it may be used to test the acidity of whey. 
When cream contains 0.5 to 0.6 per cent, acidity. It Is as 
sour as It should be for butter makino-. Full directions for 
use of the Farrington alkaline tablets are supplied with the 
tablets. 

A test by which the percentage of acidity of milk may 
be more accurately determined than Is necessary by the 
dairyman, is that in which the alkali Is lime water. 

To make lime water, used In testing the acidity of milk, 
we may get from a grocery store an ounce or so of lime ; 
add a pint of water, and stir thoroughly. Allow the undis- 
solved lime to settle, and pour off the clean lime water, 
which will contain any potassium or sodium that may have 
been present in the lime. Do this several times. Now 
pour on a quantity of distilled water depending on the sized 
bottle the lime water is kept In, and cork ; when the lime 
has settled so the water is clear, it Is ready to be used and 
may be removed as wanted with a pipette, as will be des- 
cribed presently. Always have some undissolved lime at 
the bottom of the jar, as by this means the lime water Is 



140 



CLEAN MILK 



readily kept saturated. As fast as the lime water is used, 
add distilled water to take its place. It is well to use a 
fresh lump of lime every two or three months, as in time the 
sediment may consist of carbonate of lime, owing to absorp- 
tion of carbonic acid from the air. 

An easy way to test the acidity of milk* is : (1) First 
mix the milk thoroughly, and (2) with a graduated i c.c. 
pipette (such as is shown in Fig. 41) place i c.c. of the milk 
in a small evaporating dish or test-tube. (3) To this add one 
drop of an alcoholic solution of phenolphthalein (i gm. to 
30 c.c. alcohol). (4) With another i c.c. pipette add drop 
by drop clear lime-water, and shake the tube to mix thor- 
oughly, until the milk is colored a faint pink. Now note how 
many c.c. of lime-water were used. 



c.c. milk and phenolphthalein colored by o.i c.c. lime-water 



0.1 


c.c. 1 


me-wat 


er .045 p. c. 


.2 


1< 


i.i 


.09 


•3 


<< 


t( 


.135 


•4 


" 


<< 


.180 " 


•5 


(< 


<( 


.225 '• 


.6 


(I 


<( 


.270 " 


•7 


(( 


<( 


•315 " 


.8 


«' 


( ( 


.360 " 


•9 


1( 


<( 


•405 " 


I.O 


(( 


(< 


•450 


I.I 


<( 


(( 


•495 


1.2 


(< 


« 


•540 


1-3 


" 


• < 


.5H5 " 


1.4 


l( 


if 


.630 


1.5 


(1 


<( 


.675 " 



acid. 



A simple rule is : Multiply 0.0045, ^^^ weight in grams 
of lactic acid neutralized by i c.c. lime-water, by the number 
of cubic centimeters of lime-water used, and divide by 100, 
which gives the percentage of acidity. 

Cream Tkuke?iers. — Viscogen, a solution of sugar, 
lime and water, is commonly used to thicken cream. This 



* This test is taken from Chapin's Theory and Practice of Infant Feeding. 



MILK INSPECTION 141 

adulteration can only be determined by a chemist, making 
an exact analysis for sugar and estimating the percentage of 
lime. Gelatine is sometimes employed as a thickening 
agent. This can be detected by adding, to about 10 or 15 
cubic centimeters of milk, twice the volume of water and 10 
cubic centimeters of acid mercuric nitrate solution (10 per 
cent). Shake the mixture vigorously and allow it to stand 
a few minutes and filter. If much gelatin is present it Is 
impossible to filter a clear fluid. To verify a suspicion of 
gelatine, add to a small amount of the filtered fluid an equal 
volume of a saturated aqueous solution of picric acid. If any 
gelatin is present, a yellow cloudiness will appear in the fluid. 

Milk which has been either watered or skimmed, or 
both watered and skimmed. Is considered according to law 
to be adulterated and is the commonest form of adultera- 
tion. Another form of adulteration consists In the addino- 
of preservatives to milk. The preservatives most frequently 
used are formaldehyde (sold under the name of Freezlne, 
etc.) and boric acid, sold under various trade names. These 
are added to keep milk from souring. To determine 
whether milk has been watered or skimmed three determina- 
tions are necessary : viz., the determination of the total 
solids in milk ; fat ; and the specific gravity. For the 
determination of the specific gravity and approximate 
determination of milk solids, see page 147. The deter- 
mination of the fat alone is usually sufficient to estimate 
the quantity of milk for the farmer who does not adulterate 
his milk. 

The methods for determining the amount of fat in 
milk are based upon centrifugal separation of milk. The 



142 



CLEAN MILK 



theory of these methods depends upon the fact that when 
milk is whirled at a rapid rate — several thousand revolutions 
per minute — the heavier portions of the milk are thrown 
outward, leaving the lighter or fatty portions nearer the 
center of the whirling body. The method of Dr. S. M. 
Babcock is the one in general use. 

The milk is measured in a suitable bottle and an equal 
volume of sulphuric acid is added which dissolves the casein 
or curd of milk and liberates the fat. The bottle is then 
whirled at a high speed, allowing the fat to come to the top of 

Fig. 36. 




Small Babcock machine, vviili othtr necessary paraphernalia. 

the bottle — that is, as the bottle is nearly horizontal when 
whirled, the fat approaches nearest the center of the whirling 
body. Hot water is added and the bottle whirled again and 
the percentage of fat is read off in the neck of the bottle. 
The Babcock centrifugal machines are obtainable in 
sizes ranging from those holding two bottles (Fig. 36) to 
those holding 24 (Figs. 37 and 38), and the smaller are run by 
hand while the larger are often run by power (see Fig. 38). 
The smaller sizes may be clamped or screwed to a table, re- 
quire but little space and are easy to operate. The Babcock 



MILK INSPECTION 



143 



bottle for milk-testing (Fig. 39) holds about 40 cubic centi- 
meters, the neck is graduated from o to 10 with sub-divis- 



FiG. 37 




Eight-bottle Babcock machine. 

ions of 0.2 per cent. — 2 cubic centimeters being the exact 
volume of the space between o and 10 — or 10 per cent, of 

Fig. 38 




Power Babcock machine. 



20 cubic centimeters, which volume of milk would be used 
had milk and melted fat the same specific gravity as water. 



144 



CLEAN MILK 



Fig. 39. 



It happens, however, that 2 cubic centimeters of melted fat 
weighs 1.8 grams, so in working with the test, 17.6 cubic 
centimeters of milk (the average volume of 18 grams of milk) 
are used. It is apparent then that the subdivisions on the 
stem of the bottle read per cent, direct. To 
illustrate : Suppose a given sample reads 5 on 
the neck, the volume occupied by this fat would 
be just one cubic centimeter and that would 
weigh 0.9 grams, and 0.9 grams equal 5 per 
cent, of 18 grams, or the per cent, of fat by 
weigrht in the milk. 

To make the test : The milk should be 
well mixed, and both it and the acid should be 
at a temperature between 60^ and 70*^ F. The 
pipette, graduated to 17.6 cubic centimeters, 
should be filled precisely to this point, by suck- 
ing up the milk into it. The milk bottle is to 
be held in a slanting position and the point 
of the pipette just introduced Into the neck of 
the bottle (see Figs. 40 and 41). By gradually 
raising the finger from the end of the pipette, 
the milk is permitted to flow into the bottle, the 
last drop being expelled by gently blowing 
through the pipette. To the milk In the test 
bottle, 17.6 cubic centimeters of commercial sul- 
phuric acid (specific gravity 1.82) are added In 
the same manner with the pipette, and, by 
gently rotating the bottle, the acid and milk are mixed. 

The acid and milk become very hot and care must be 
taken to mix gradually, and to allow no lumps to collect In 
the neck. It is well to then let the bottles stand for a few 
minutes, and mix again by rotating the bottles. 



Pipette for 
making the 
Babcock test 



MILK INSPECTION 



145 



The bottles are now placed in the machine (it is 
■wise to have duplicates of each sample of milk) and the 
machine is rotated at full speed for five minutes. Then the 
machine is stopped and boiling soft water is added to the 
contents of each bottle, by means of the pipette or other- 
wise, till the contents of the bottle rise to the lower end of 

Fig. 40. 




Shows method of introducing milk into Babcock bottle with pipette 
in making the fat test. 

the neck of the bottle. The machine is whirled at full 
speed again for two minutes. More boiling water is then 
added to the contents of each bottle by pipette until the fat 
rises in the neck to the 8 or 9 mark. The machine is once 
more turned one minute and the percentage of fat is read 
off in the neck of the bottle by measuring with calipers 



146 CLEAN MILK 

from the lower to the upper border of the fat in the neck. 
The reading must be done before the contents or the bottle 
cool off. The addition of the hot water may be accom- 
plished without removing the bottles from the machine. 

Estimation of Solids in Milk by Qucvcnnc^s 
Lactometer. 

Since most cities require that market milk shall contain 
a standard joercentage of milk solids, it is of advantage that 
the farmer be able to determine this matter for himself. 

Quevenne's lactometer is an instrument by which the 
solids can be roughly estimated. It consists of a glass bulb 
w^eighted with mercury and terminating in a stem like a 
thermometer, and marked by lines on the stem from 15 to 
40. It should also carry a thermometer. 

The principle upon which the lactometer is based 
depends upon the fact that, when it is placed in milk, in 
floating it displaces a bulk of milk equal in weight to the 
weight of the lactometer. The milk m_ust be thoroughly 
mixed — but free from bubbles of air — and the reading is 
taken at the actual level of the milk ; not at the point of the 
stem to which it Is drawn by capillary attraction. 

The lactometer is then used to determine the weight 
of milk (or in other words, the specific gravity) as com- 
pared with the weight of an equal bulk of water when both 
are at the same temperature. 

If 1,000 is taken as the weight of a certain quantity of 
water, the weight of the same quantity of milk, at the same 
temperature, is about 1,030 to 1,034. This is shown in 
practice by floating the lactometer in milk, placed in a 
cylindrical glass tube, when it will sink in the milk to a 
mark on the stem corresponding to the specific gravity of 



MILK INSPECTION 147 

the milk. The greater weight of milk (as compared with 
water), or its specific gravity, is due to the solids-not-fat it 
contains, i. c, the casein, albumin and milk sugar. While 
the lactometer may be used to determine the solids in 
unaltered milk as it comes from the cow, it will not deter- 
mine the solids in milk which has been watered and 
skimmed.* Milk fat weighs less than water, and, of course, 
less than milk. Removing cream raises the specific gravity 
of milk. Then if water were added the specific gravity 
might be lowered again to the normal for untampered 
and unadulterated milk. 

To estimate the solids in milk by the lactometer, the 
temperature of the milk should theoretically be 60 deg. F. 
But the milk may be at any temperature between 50 deg. 
and 70 deg. F. providing a correction is made for the tem- 
perature of milk above or below 60 deg. F. Thus, if the 
milk is above 60 deg. F., one must add to the lactometer 
reading o. i for each degree of temperature above this point ; 
if the temperature of the milk is below 60 deg. F., one 
should subtract o. I from the lactometer reading for each 
degree of temperature below this point. 

For example, if a sample of milk at a temperature of 
65 deg. F. shows a lactometer reading of 29, then one should 
add to this reading: — 5 o. i = 0.5, which gives the cor- 
rected reading as 29.5. 

If, on the other hand, the lactometer should float In 
milk to a mark on its stem indicating 29, and the tempera- 
ture of the milk was 55 deg, F., then one should subtract 
o. I for each degree of temperature below 60 deg. F. from 
this lactometer reading, which gives us 28.5 as the corrected 
reading. 

Now, to estimate the solids in milk we must have prev- 

* In conjunction with the fat test and the determination of solids it will 
show either watering or skimming of milk. 



148 CLEAN MILK 

iously determined the percentage of fat In the milk by- 
means of the Babcock machine. To find the total solids in 
milk we divide the lactometer reading by 4, and, to the 
result, add the per cent, of fat multiplied by 1.2. For 
example, we have a milk containing 4 per cent, of fat and a 
lactometer reading of 32, to find the total solids : 

32 -r 4 = 8- 
4 per cent. X 1.2 = 4.8 

12.8 per cent, of total solids. 

To find the solids-not-fat, divide the lactometer reading 
by 4, and, to the result, add the per cent, of fat multiplied 
by 0.2. Thus, in the same milk as in the last example : — 

32 ^ 4-8. 

4 per cent. X 0.2 = 0.8 

8.8 per cent, of solids-not-fat. 

The percentage of casein and albumin increases — 
though not in a proportionate degree — with the increase of 
fat, as shown in the following table from Woll's Handbook,., 
summarizing the analyses of 2,400 samples of milk : 



Fat 


Casein and 


Total 


per cent. 


albumin. 


solids. 


3.07 


2.92 


11.00 


329 


3-0 


11.50 


3-50 


3-07 


12.00 


3.7s 


319 


12.50 


3-99 


3-30 


13.00 


4.34 


3-44 


13-50 


4.68 


3-57 


14.00 


4.92 


3-79 


14.50 


5-38 


4.00 


15.00 


5.69 


413 


15-50 


6.00 


4-30 


16.00 



MIIK INSPECTION 



149 



Quantitative Analysis of the Bacteria in Milk* 



Fig. 41 

n 



Glassware. — At the outset there should be carefully washed a 
number of test-tubes, liter flasks, petri dishes (Fig. 44), 
cubic centimeter pipettes (Fig. 41), a number of small 
flasks which are marked to hold 99 c.c. (Fig. 42), to- 
gether with a considerable number of small vials, like 
homeopathic vials, marked to hold 19 c.c. (Fig. 42). These 
various pieces of glass plugged with cotton, are placed in 
a sterilizing oven and heated for about an hour to a 
temperature approximating 180° C. It is well to sterilize 
a considerable number of them at the outset, so as to 
have them on hand. Some of the cubic centimeter pipettes 
should be graduated to one-tenth of a c.c, and it is best 
to place them in a larger glass tube whose ends are plugged 
with cotton, as shown in Fig. 41, in which the pipettes can 
be kept after being sterilized. After this apparatus has been 
sterilized it should be set aside where it can be kept free 
from dust until needed. 

(Sterilized agar culture medium may be made as below 
— a somewhat difficult process — or bought of Park, Davis 
& Co., Detroit, Mich., or other such makers of laboratory 
products. — K. W.) 

Preparation of Culture Media. — Any of the methods of 
preparation of culture media used in bacteriological labora- 
tories are satisfactory for the purpose of milk analysis. The 
method of making a satisfactory medium for quantitative 
analysis is as follows : 

PEPTONE-AGAR CULTURE MEDIUM. 

A. In a large porcelain cooking dish place the fol- 
lowing ingredients : 

Water 500 c.c, 

Peptone, dry . 10 grams 

Common salt 5 " 

Liebig's Extract of Beef 5 '* 

Milk sugar 30 " 



U 

«i C.C. pip- 
ettes in- 
'•closed in 
tubes for 
■sterilizing. 



* Taken from Conn's Bacteria in Milk and its Products, 



I50 



CLEAN MILK 



These materials are to be mixed together and heated to a tempera- 
ture not above 150° F., which will bring the materials into solution. 
There should tiien be added to the mixture a sufficient amount of 
water to make up for that which is evaporated in the heating. This 
may best be determined by weight rather than by measure, weighing 
the dish with its contents before heating, and then weighing again 
after the solution is complete, adding water to make the weight equal 
to the original weight. 

B. Cut into fine pieces 15 grams of agar and dissolve it in 500 
c.c. of water. This will require considerable heat. After the agar is 

Fig. 42. 




m 



m 



Flasks and vials for quantitative bacteriological analysis. 



dissolved, cool to 150° C, add water to restore evaporation, and mix 
with solution A. The mixture must then be neutralized carefully. 
This neutralization is the most important step in the whole preparation. 
A satisfactory method of neutralization is as follows : 

Remove 5 c.c. of the mixture by a pipette and place in an evaporat- 
ing dish. Add 45 c.c. of distilled water, boil for 3 minutes, and add 
I c.c. of phenolphthalein solution (5 gm. of phenolphthalein powder in 
100 c.c. of 50 per cent, alcohol). Place in a burette having a rubber 
pinch-cock (Fig. 43), a quantity of one-tenth normal solution of sodium 



MILK INSPECTION ■ 151 

"hydroxid.* Add this solution, drop by drop, to the material in the 
evaporating dish until it turns to a very faint pink color. This indi- 
cates the neutral point. Treat two other samples in the same way, 
and if the amount of the sodium hydroxid added is the same in each 
case it indicates the amount necessary to neutralize 5 c c. of the cul- 
ture medium. The average of the three tests should be taken. By 
'calculation, determine the amount necessary to neutralize the whole 
liter, and add sufficient amount to the whole for neutralization. 



*To make strictly accurate normal solution of NaOH and HCl requires fami- 
liarity with quantitative chemistry. Solutions accurate enough for bacteriologi- 
cal work may be made as follows : 

Normal NaOH. — Dissolve 40 grams of fresh, dry NaOH in one liter of 
distilled water. This will not be a strictly accurate normal solution, but verj- 
nearly so. The solution should not be kept in a glass-stoppered bottle. It loses 
its strength and it is best to use solutions which are fresh. To make a one-tenth 
normal solution dilute any quantity of the normal solution with ten times its bulk 
of distilled water. This should be made fresh from a normal solution at the thne 
of using. 

Normal HCl. — To 700 c.c. distilled water add 100 c.c. of concentrated c.p. 
HCl, which, assuming that the HCl is 30 per cent, acid, would give 30 grams of 
HCl in 800 c.c. of the solution. This gives about the right strength (z. <?., 36.5 
c.c. per liter), but since the HCl varies in strength, the solution nmst be standard- 
ized >vith a normal NaOH prepared as described above. To do this proceed as 
follows : Place 10 c.c. of the HCl solution in an evaporating dish. Add 40 c.c. 
of distilled water and i c.c of phenolphthalein solution. Fill a burette (see Fig. 
39) with some freshly prepared normal NaOH, and allow the NaOH to flow from 
the burette into the evaporating dish, drop by drop, until the faintest pink color 
appears in the acid solution and remains. This indicates the neutral point. 
Read from the burette the amount of NaOH which was required to neutralize the 
10 c.c. of acid. If the HCl solution were exactly normal, 10 c.c. would require 
exactly 10 c c. of NaOH solution for neutralization. The solution prepared as 
above described (loo c.c. of HCl in 700 c c. of water) is usually too strong and 
requires more than lo c.c. of normal NaOH for neutralization. It nmst, there- 
fore, be diluted with water. The amount of water that must be added can be 
calculated as follows : Suppose there were required 11 c.c. of the NaOH to neu- 
tralize 10 c.c. of the HCl solution. This would indicate that the HCl was eleven- 
tenths of its proper strength. To make it normal there should be added to it one 
part of water to every ten parts of solution. The solution prepared now contains 
790 c.c, and 790 X iV — 79 c.c. Hence 79 c.c. of distilled water should be 
added to the 790 c.c. of HCl to give a normal HCl solution. Add 79 c.c. of water 
and test again to correct any error. If the original HCl solution should prove to 
be too weak it is easier to make another solution a little stronger than to calcu- 
late the amount of acid necessary to bring the solution to a normal strength. 

The normal HCl solution once made will keep a long time without deteriora- 
tion if kept in a stoppered bottle. A one-tenth normal HCl solution may be made 
by diluting the normal solution with ten times its bulk of water at the time of 
using. 



152 



CLEAN MILK 



Fig. 43. 



J^ormal 
JfCl 



yhNormai 
AaO/f 



Instead, however, of adding to the mixture the one-tenth normal 
NaOH, add a normal solution, which is ten times as strong, and of 
which, therefore, only one-tenth as much should be added as would be 
required of the one-tenth normal. The whole of the medium is thus 
to be neutralized. It is well to test the accuracy of the neutralization 
by adding a few drops of phenolphtha- 
lein to a little of the neutralized me- 
dium. This should give the faint 
pinkish tinge ; if it does not, it means 
that the neutralization has not been 
properly effected. 

After neutralization, boil for five 
minutes and restore to the original 
weight, after which the reaction 
should be tested again and corrected 
if necessary. 

The material thus neutralized is 
too strongly alkaline for the proper 
growth of bacteria and must be ren- 
dered less alkaline by adding HCl. 
The amount to be added should be 
such as to bring the reaction to 1.5 
per cent. acid. To produce this acidity 
add to the neutralized medium 15 c.c. 
of normal HCl for each liter. The 
acidity thus obtained is found to be 
that at which common milk bacteria 
grow most readily. 

After adding HCl in proportion Two burettes arranged for neutral- 

^ izing culture media, 

of 15 c.c. to each liter of solution, 

pour into the mixture slowly the white of an egg mixed in a little 
water. Boil vigorously for a few minutes to coagulate the albumen, 
and then filter through absorbent cotton or through filter paper 
moistened with hot water. The material filters rather more easily 
through absorbent cotton, and if the directions above given are fol- 
lowed closely it will filter perfectly clear. After filtering the material 
is to be collected in a sterilized flask. 




MILK INSPECTION 



153 



Fill a considerable number of test tubes with the material from 
the flask, placing in each test tube about 10 c.c. of the medium, care- 
fully replace the cotton stoppers after the test tubes have been filled 
with the medium, and the whole quantity— both that in the test 
tubes and the flask — should be sterilized in a steam sterilizer for 20 
minutes. 

To produce complete sterilization it is necessary to repeat the 
steaming on three successive days. The second and third sterilization 
require a longer time than the first, inasmuch as it requires some time 
to melt the agar, and, until the agar is thoroughly melted, the steril- 
ization is not effective. Upon the second and third days, therefore, the 
material should be steamed at least one-half hour. If an autoclave is 
at hand, sterilization at 120° C. for 20 minutes is sufficient. 

Fig. 44. 




Petri Dishes. 

Method of Making Quantitative Analysis of Milk. — In order to 
make an analysis of the bacteria in milk it is necessary to have an 
approximate idea of the number of bacteria which are to be expected. 
The reason for this is that the bacteria are commonly so numerous that 
it is necessary to dilute the milk highly with sterilized water in order 
that reliable results may be obtained. In the quantitative analysis of 
ordinary market milk it is commonly satisfactory to dilute the milk 
one hundred times with sterilized water, provided the medium to be 
used is the agar culture medium above described. If the milk is old 
and contains large numbers of bacteria, a much higher dilution than 
this is desirable (see p. 157), but for the kind of milk usually found 
in milk-distributing carts a dilution of one hundred times is usually 
satisfactory for the purpose here considered. 



154 CLEAN MILK 

Several of the small flasks marked to hold 99 c.c. are filled to this 
mark with water and placed in an autoclave for sterilization. If it is 
desired to dilute the milk more than one hundred times there should, 
at the same time, be placed in the autoclave a number of the smaller 
vials filled with water to the 19 c.c. mark and others to the 5 c.c. 
mark (Fig. 42). All of these vessels of water are to be sterilized for 
an hour at a temperature of 120° (a steam pressure of ten pounds will 
do), after which they are to be removed. If an autoclave is not at 
hand the water may be sterilized by steaming for two hours. 

There is now taken from the milk to be tested a single cubic 
centimeter in one of the sterilized pipettes. Takhij of the sajjiple of 
milk is the most important point in the analysis and most liable to 
introduce errors. The number of bacteria found in different parts of 
a can of milk is by no means uniform, the surface layers containing 
different numbers from the deep layers of the milk. To avoid this 
irregularity it is necessary to give the milk a very thorough stirring or 
shaking immediately before the sample is taken, so as to distribute the 
bacteria as uniformly as possible. 

A cubic centimeter of milk is transferred by a sterilized pipette 
into one of the 100 c.c. flasks of sterilized water. The mixture is then 
to be very thoroughly shaken, so as to distribute the milk uniformly 
through the water. This thorough shaking is extremely important to 
break up the clumps of bacteria. 

Meantime six test-tubes of the agar culture medium have been 
melted by placing them in water over a gas flame. The tube should 
be kept in warm water at a temperature just sufficient to keep its con- 
tents from solidifying, A single cubic centimeter of the mixture of 
milk and water is removed with a second sterilized pipette and placed 
in each of the test-tubes of melted culture medium. The test-tubes 
are then to be gently but thoroughly shaken, so as to distribute the 
inoculated material uniformly. It is necessary to avoid shaking too 
vigorously, or otherwise bubbles will make their appearance, which 
will interfere with the accuracy of the test. The shaking should be 
thorough but not violent. 

Six sterilized petri dishes (Fig. 44) should have been placed upon 
a plate of glass which is held in as nearly a level position as possible 



MILK INSPECTION 155 

and cooled artificially. This can be accomplished by taking a large, 
flat dish, filling it with water and ice then laying a large plate of glass' 
upon the top. The ice will rapidly cool the glass plate, and the petri 
dishes placed upon the plate will also rapidly become cooled. The 
contents of each of the test-tubes inoculated with the diluted milk are 
now to be poured each into a petri dish and the cover quickly replaced. 
The culture medium will distribute itself in a thin layer over the bot- 
tom of the petri dish and soon harden. The dishes are to be labelled 
and then set aside in a proper place for growth. If desired to hasten 
the analysis the dishes may be placed in a culture oven kept at a tem- 
perature of 98° F. For ordinary study of milk bacteria it is usually 
most satisfactory to leave the petri dishes at a room temperature of 
70° F. , allowing them to remain for three or four days before the final 
study is made. 

The Study of the Plates. — The solidified culture medium fixes 
each bacterium at a single point. As the bacteria feed upon the cul- 
ture medium they grow and multiply, but, unable to move through the 
solidified medium, the descendants of each bacterium remain together 
in a mass and, in the course of two days, become abundant enough to 
produce a spot which can be seen with the naked eye. The plate, 
therefore, becomes dotted over with little points of various size and 
shapes known as bacteria colonies. It is only necessary, therefore, to 
count the number of colonies on one of these plates and we know 
approximately the number of bacteria that were present in one one- 
hundredth of a cubic centimeter of the original milk ; and multiplying 
the number by one hundred we get the number of bacteria per cubic 
centimeter of the milk. (See Plate T.) In counting these bacteria 
on the plate it is sometimes necessary to use various devices for 
dividing the plate into areas. If the number is small they can be 
counted without difiiculty, but if the number of colonies on the plate is 
large it is more convenient to place underneath the plate a piece of 
black paper with white lines ruled upon it, dividing the plate into a 
series of sections of equal size. Such cards for aiding the counting 
can be obtained from dealers in bacteriological material, and a 
quantity of them should be at hand in every laboratory to assist in 
the counting. If the numbers are not very great the counting may 



156 CLEAN MILK 

be done without the aid of these slips, by simply marking the under 
side of the petri dislies with a waxed pencil, and thus dividing the 
plate into a series of sections which may be counted individually. 
The actual determination of the number of bacteria on these plates 
is not difficult, though it requires a little practice (see Plate T). 

The number thus obtained represents approximately the number 
of bacteria in a cubic centimeter of the original milk, but the number 
is only an approximate one. Different tests of the sample of milk will 
show considerable irregularities, and it is for this reason that six petri 
dishes have been made. Each of the six should be counted and the 
average result of the six regarded as the average number of bacteria 
per one one-hundredth cubic centimeter. But, apart from this irregu- 
larity in the samples, there are at least three other facts which make 
the analysis only approximate. First, if in the diluted milk there chance 
to be several bacteria clinging together, as is quite probable even after 
thorough shaking, these, when placed within petri dishes, would 
develop into a single colony and would be counted as one. This will 
naturally give a number in the analysis somewhat too low. A second 
and more serious difficulty is the fact that not all bacteria present in 
the milk will grow in the culture medium as above prepared. While 
a large proportion of the bacteria will develop on plates and make their 
appearance in analysis, there are some that do not grow at all, and, 
therefore, do not appear in the analysis. Third, it is impossible to 
pour out all of the contents of the tube into the petri dish, for some 
will inevitably stick to the tube. To obtain the absolute number of 
living bacteria present in a cubic centimeter of milk is quite impossible 
by any means at our command. 

The number obtained by the method described will always be an 
underestimate. But while it must always be recognized as approxi- 
mate, the results in different cases may be compared with each other. 
If two samples of milk show, one ten thousand and the other ten mil- 
lion, it is quite certain that these numbers express approximately the 
relative number of bacteria in two samples, though neither expresses 
the number accurately. 



rr.ATK T. 




Petri dish containing i cubic centimeter of a mixture of milk(i c.c.) diluted 
■with 499 c.c, of sterilized water and mixed with sterilized agar culture medium. 
The white spots in the plate are colonies or collections of germs. 

Each colony is supposed to represent a single germ at the time the milk 
was examined. The dish rests on a glass plate lined in white with a black 
background to facilitate counting the colonies. When the colonies are small 
and numerous, only those in every other sector of the circle need be counted 
and the result multiplied by two. In the above plate there are only about 80 
])lainly visible, but with a common magnifying glass — and one is generally used 
for counting — about 125 colonies may be seen. 

In the dish photographed, 272 colonies were couuted, and, multiplied by 500 
(the I c.c. of milk was diluted 500 times) gave 135,000, germs in i c.c. of milk. 



MILK INSPECTION 157 

The following report,* describing the method of count- 
ing bacteria in Boston's milk supply, gives the most 
improved details of technique. The reporters are well 
recognized experts and have worked out some very ingeni- 
ous improvements which will be found of much practical 
value. 

The method decided upon after consideration of those employed 
in about 15 laboratories throughout this country was as follows : For 
media, one and one-half per cent, nutrient agar (B. C), 10 c.c. to a 
tube, reaction plus 0.7. The collection outfit was devised anew and 
consists of a case for carrying the samples made of copper with double 
walls interlaid with one-half inch felting. This case is divided into 
three compartments ; the central one for samples, the other two for 
ice. When iced and closed, a constant temperature of 34° F. is main- 
tained. The samples are carried in sterilized test tubes, the compart- 
ment holding eight racks of four tubes each. A smaller case was also 
made holding but three racks. These racks are made from copper 
tubing as suggested by one of us. (H. W. H.) Holes in the parti- 
tions of the case allow the ice water to circulate around the bottoms of 
the tubes. The use of the test tubes for carrying samples was sug- 
gested by S. C. Keith. For collecting, glass pipettes are used. These 
are carried in a detachable copper case, adapted for sterilizing, divided 
into two compartments, the upper for fresh sterile pipettes, the lower 
for the pipettes after use. 

For plating the samples, the agar, after being melted, is kept in a 
water bath between 40° and 45° C. until needed. In order to bring 
down the actual number of colonies in a plate to a countable figure, a 
standard dilution of i to 10,000 is used. For dilution water, square 
eight-ounce bottles, marked at 100 c.c, are used. This water is steril- 
ized in the autoclave under 15 pounds steam pressure for 20 minutes 
at a temperature of about 250° F. Two bottles are used for each sam- 
ple, giving a dilution of i to 10,000, with i c.c. of milk. Each dilu- 



* Herbert Winslow Hill, M.D., Director, and Francis Hervey Slack, M.D., 
2d Asst. Bacteriologist, Boston Board of Health Bacteriological Laboratory. lu 
American Journal of Public Hygiene, November, 1904. 



158 CLEAN MILK 

tion is shaken 25 times for tliorough mixing, as is also the sample. A 
sterile pipette marked to contain i c.c. and calibrated in the laboratory- 
is used at each stage, three being required for each sample. After 
expelling the milk into the first bottle, the pipette is rinsed to the i 
c.c. mark in the dilution water ; i c.c. from the first dilution bottle is 
transferred to the second dilution bottle ; then i c.c. from the second 
dilution bottle is transferred to the petri dish. The agar is then care- 
fully added, mixed with the diluted milk in the plate and allowed to 
harden. 

The plates are incubated in a saturated atmosphere at 37° C. 
(98.6° F.) for 24 hours. The colonies in a saturated atmosphere are 
not only more numerous, as shown by Whipple, than in a dry atmo- 
sphere, but also larger and therefore more easily counted ; 37° C. is 
used in preference to room temperature because the latter requires 
more time for satisfactory development of the colonies, and is also so 
variable as to give no standard for the comparison of results. The 
24-hour incubation is used in preference to the 48-hour because, 
though the latter shows a slightly higher average count, the counts 
are not sufiiciently higher to materially change the report. One 
thousand consecutive plates incubated at 37° C. and counted at 24 
and 48 hours gave the following results : 

679 or 68 per cent, showed an increase in the number of colonies 
at the 48-hour count. 

In 195, or 19.5 per cent., the count remained the same ; 126 or 
12.6 per cent, showed a decrease. 

799 or 80 per cent, of these plates had counts below 100. 

The average 24-hour count on these plates was 15J2 ; the average 
4S-hour count i8J4^. 

193, or 19 per cent., had between 100 and 1,000 colonies averaging 
at the 24-hour count 275, and at the 48-hour count 283. 

Eight plates, about i per cent., had over 1,000 colonies each, 
averaging 1,287 ^^ the 24-hour and 1,334 at the 48-hour count. 

Only 13 plates changed their relation to the legal limit, nine going 
from below to above 500,000 and four decreasing. 

In many plates, the count is lower with the 48-hour incubation on 
account of small colonies becoming obscured in the growth of larger 
ones. There are also more spreaders. 



MILK INSPECTION 159 

This annoying difficulty with spreaders, frequently met with even 
in the 24-hour plates, we now overcome by the use of earthenware 
petri covers suggested by one of us. (H. W. H.)* 

Spreading seems to be caused principally by water condensing on 
the petri covers and agar. The dry porous earthenware covers absorb 
this condensation water, still leaving the atmosphere saturated, as 
proven by the large size of the colonies. Organisms having an inher- 
ent tendency to spread from unusual motility are not prevented from 
spreading by this method. 

In Counting.— K box, a child's slate, a reading glass and a "lum- 
ber counter" are used. 

The box is 6x6x5 inches, with open bottom, glass front, and a 
four-inch circular opening in the top, painted black within and with- 
out, except the glass front. 

The slate has a circle cut in the surface, 4>^ inches in diameter, 
divided into 10 equal segments, the lines filled with red lead. 

The reading glass is a common four-inch lens magnifying about 

two diameters. 

The petri dish is placed over the circle on the slate and uncovered. 
The box fits over the circle, the reading glass over the box, thus pro- 
tecting the plate, keeping a constant focus and setting both hands of 
the operator free. 

A slight pressure of the thumb for each colony seen on the lum- 
ber counter accurately adds and records the count. As the dilution is 
I to 10,000, the actual count must be multiplied by 10,000 to obtain 
the number of bacteria in i c.c. of the milk. 

In addition to simply counting the bacteria it is essen- 
tial to examine for pus and streptococci which enter milk 
from an inflamed udder (garget) and may cause sore throat, 
dio-estive disorders, tonsilitis and what closely resembles 
scarlet fever and diphtheria in man (see p. 20). To dis- 
cover in milk the pus (or matter, such as comes from an 
abscess), and the germs which cause the Inflammation of 
the cow's udder, Dr. Slack writes me as follows : 

* Journal Medical Research, Nov., 1904. 



i6o CLEAN MILK 

" We centrifugalize the milk in small glass tubes (about 
2 c.c. each, the ends being closed with rubber stoppers). 
Our apparatus carries 20 tubes and we centrifugalize for 
ten minutes at a speed of 2000-3000 revolutions a minute. 

" The sediment obtained on the rubber stopper is 
smeared evenly with a drop of sterile water over a space 4 
sq. cm. By examining this sediment with a 1-12 oil immer- 
sion lens, we determine the presence of pus or streptococci 
and are also able to make a microscopic estimate of the num- 
ber of bacteria present." 

Since it is impossible to differentiate between dead leu- 
cocytes and pus, and since a certain number of leucocytes 
are normal (3 or 4 in a 1-12 immersion lens field) in milk, 
it is necessary to fix an arbitrary standard not to be ex- 
ceeded by these cells. The standard, observed by the 
Boston Board of Health, is 50 cells to the field of a 1-12 
oil immersion lens (spreading the sediment from 2 c.c. of 
milk over a surface of 4 sq. cm,). If this number is exceeded 
the milk is condemned. After the milk is centrifuged in 
small glass tubes (see above), the sediment is placed on 
spaced, glass slides, dried with gentle heat and stained with 
methylene blue. During the course of the microscopic 
examination for pus, the number of bacteria can be deter- 
mined with a very fair degree of accuracy without plating 
the milk if the milk contains more than 100,000 bacteria 
in I c.c. 

Milk is condemned by the Boston Board of Health for 
streptococci when 3 tests are positive : i. When the centri- 
fuged sediment shows streptococci, cocci or diplococci. 2. 
When the plate from the same sample shows colonies 
resembling streptococci colonies, in excess of 100,000 to i 
c.c. 3. When such colonies transferred to broth and grown 



• MILK INSPECTION i6i 

for 24 hours at 2)1° C. show streptococci alone or in great 
excess of the other bacteria present. 

In an excellent article by Slack* the methods pursued 
by this Board of Health are described in detail, showing the 
system perfected by their own experience modified by the 
study of that pursued in 15 other prominent milk labora- 
tories in the bacterioloo;ical examination of milk. 



CIRCULARS. 

Jst. " Cettif ied Milfc/' 

Circular of Information Concerning the Requirements op 
THE MiL,K Commission of the Medical Society op the 
County op New York for ' ' Certified ' ' Milk. 

The Commission appointed by the Medical Society of the County 
of New York to aid in improving the milk supply of New York City 
invites the co-operation of the milk dealers and farmers in attaining 
that end. The sale of pure milk is of advantage to those furnishing 
it, as well as to those who use it. The Commission has undertaken to 
assist both consumer and producer by fixing a standard of cleanliness 
and quality to which it can certify, and by giving information concern- 
ing the measures needful for obtaining that degree of purity. 

The most practicable standard for the estimation of cleanliness \n 
the handling and care of milk is its relative freedom from bacteria. 
The Commission has tentatively fixed upon a maxium of 30,000 germs 
of all kinds per cubic centimeter of milk, which must not be exceeded 
in order to obtain the indorsement of the Commission. This standard 
must be attained solely by measures directed toward scrupulous clean- 
liness, proper cooling, and prompt delivery. The milk certified by the 
Commission must contain not less than four per cent, of butter fat, on 
the average, and have all other characteristics of pure, wholesome 
milk. 

In order that dealers v/ho incur the expense and take the precau- 
tions necessary to furnish a truly clean and wholesome milk may have 
some suitable means of bringing these facts before the public, the Com- 
mission offers them the right to use caps on their milk jars stamped 
with the words, " Certified by the Commission of the Medical Society 

* Journal of Infectious Diseases, Supplement No. 2, Feb. 1906, pp. 214-222. 



1 62 CLEAN MILK 

of the County of New York." The dealers are given the right to use 
these certificates when their milk is obtained under the conditions 
required b>' the Commission and conforms to its standards. 
The required conditions are as follows : 

1. The Barnyard. — The barnyard should be free from manure 
and well drained, so that it may not harbor stagnant water. The 
manure which collects each day should not be piled close to the barn, 
but should be taken several hundred feet away. If these rules are 
observed not only will the barnyard be free from objectionable smell, 
which is always an injury to the milk, but the number of flies in sum- 
mer will be considerably diminished. These flies in themselves are an 
element of danger, for they are fond of both filth and milk, and are 
liable to get into the milk after having soiled their bodies and legs in 
recently visited filth, thus carrying it into the milk. Flies also irritate 
cows, and by making them nervous reduce the amount of their milk. 

2. The Stable. — In the stable the principles of cleanliness must 
be strictly observed. The room in which the cows are milked should 
have no storage loft above it ; where this is not feasible, the floor of 
the loft should be tight, to prevent the sifting of dust into the stable 
beneath. The stables should be well ventilated, lighted, and drained, 
and should have tight floors, preferably of cement. They should be 
whitewashed inside at least twice a year, and the air should always be 
fresh and without bad odor. A sufficient number of lanterns should 
be provided to enable the necessary work to be properly done during 
dark hours. There should be an adequate water supply and the neces- 
sary wash-basins, soap, and towels. The manure should be removed 
from the stalls twice daily, except when the cows are outside in the 
fields the entire time between the morning and afternoon milkings. 
The manure gutter must be kept in a sanitary condition, and all sweep- 
ing and cleaning must be finished at least twenty minutes before milk- 
ing, so that at that time the air may be free from dust. 

J. Water Supply. — The whole premises used for dairy purposes, 
as well as the barn, must have a supply of water absolutely free from 
any danger of pollution with animal matter, and sufficiently abundant 
for all purposes and easy of access. 

^, The Cows. — The cows should be examined at least twice a 
year by a skilled veterinarian. Any animal suspected of being in bad 
health must be promptly removed from the herd and her milk rejected. 
Never add an animal to the herd until it has been tested with tubercu- 
lin and it is certain that it is free from disease. Do not allow the cows 
to be excited by hard driving, abuse, loud talking, or any unnecessary 



MILK INSPECTION i6 



a 



disturbance. Do not allow any strongly flavored food, like garlic, 
which will affect the flavor of the milk, to be eaten by the cows. 

Groom the entire body of the cow daily. Before each milking 
wipe the udder with a clean damp cloth, and when necessary wash it 
with soap and clean water and wipe it dry with a clean towel. Never 
leave the udder wet, and be sure the water and towel used are clean. 
If the hair in the region of the udder is long and not easily kept clean, 
it should be clipped. The cows must not be allowed to lie down after 
being cleaned for milking until the milking is finished. A chain or 
rope must be stretched under the neck to prevent this. 

All milk from cows sixty days before and ten days after calving 
must be rejected. 

5. The Milkers. — The milker should be personally clean. He 
should neither have nor come in contact with any contagious disease 
while employed in milking or handling milk. In case of any illness 
in the person or family of any employee in the dairy, such employee 
must absent himself from the dairy until a physician certifies that it is 
safe for him to return. 

Before milking, the hands should be thoroughly washed in warm 
water with soap and a nail brush and well dried with a clean towel. 
On no account should the hands be wet during the milking. 

The milking should be done regularly at the same hour morning 
and evening, and in a quiet, thorough manner. Light-colored wash- 
able outer garments should be worn during milking. They should be 
clean and dry, and when not in use for this purpose should be kept in 
a clean place protected from dust. Milking stools must be kept clean. 
Iron stools, painted white, are recommended. 

6. Helpers Other Than Milkers. — All persons engaged in the 
stable and dairy should be reliable and intelligent. Children under 
twelve years should not be allowed in the stable durmg milking, since 
in their ignorance they may do harm, and from their liability to con- 
tagious diseases they are more apt than older persons to transmit them 
through the milk. 

J. Small Animals. — Cats and dogs must be excluded from the 
stables during the time of milking. 

8. The Milk. — The first few streams from each teat should be 
discarded, in order to free the milk ducts from milk that has remained 
in them for some time and in which bacteria are sure to have multi- 
plied greatly. If in any milking a part of the milk is bloody or stringy 
or unnatural in appearance, the whole quantity of milk yielded by that 



164 CLEAN MILK 

animal must be rejected. If any accident occurs by whicb tbe milk in 
a pail becomes dirty, do not try to remove the dirt by straining, but 
reject all the milk and cleanse the pail. The milk pails used should 
have an opening not exceeding eight inches in diameter. 

Remove the milk of each cow from the stable immediately after it 
is obtained to a clean room and strain it through a sterilized strainer. 

The rapid cooling of milk is a matter of great importance. The 
milk should be cooled to 45° within one hour. Aeration of pure milk 
beyond that obtained in milking is unnecessary. 

All dairy utensils, including bottles, must be thoroughly cleansed 
and sterilized. This can be done by first thoroughly rinsing in warm 
water, then washing with a brush and soap or other alkaline cleansing 
material and hot water, and thoroughly rinsing. After this cleansing, 
they should be sterilized with boiling water or steam and then kept , 
inverted in a place free from dust. 

g. The Dairy. — The room or rooms where the bottles, milk pails, 
strainers, and other utensils are cleaned and sterilized should be separ- 
ated somewhat from the house, or when this is impossible have at least 
a separate entrance, and be used only for dairy purposes, so as to les- 
sen the danger of transmitting through the milk contagious diseases 
which may occur in the home. 

Bottles, after filling, must be closed with sterilized discs, and 
capped so as to keep all dirt and dust from the inner surface of the 
neck and the mouth of the bottle. 

10. Examination of the Milk and Dairy hispedion. — In order 
that the dealers and the Commission may be kept informed of the 
character of the milk, specimens taken at random from the day's sup- 
ply must be sent weekly to the Research Laboratory of the Health 
Department, where examinations will be made by experts for the Com- 
mission ; the Health Department having given the use of its labora- 
tories for this purpose. 

The Commission resen^es to itself the right to make inspections of 
certified farms at any time and to take specimens of milk for examina- 
tion. It also reserves the right to change its standards in any reason- 
able manner upon due notice being given to the dealers. 

After January i, 1902, the expenses incurred in making the 
regular milk examinations and inspections will be borne by the dealers. 
In fixing the charges each farm or group of farms will be considered a 
unit. The Secretary of the County Medical Society will send the bills 
to the dealers about the middle of each month. Prompt payment is 
requested. 



MILK INSPECTION 165 

The monthly charges, which are intended to cover all expenses, 
will be as follows : 

For each group of farms sending daily less than 100 quarts $8.00 
" " 100 to 200 " 10.00 

" ** 200 to 500 " 12.00 

** " over 500 " 15-00 

2d.— "Inspected Milk/' 

Circular of Information Concerning the Requirements op 
THE Milk Commission of the Medical Society of the 
County of New York for "Inspected" Milk. 

The Commission appointed by the Medical Society of the County 
of New York to aid in improving the milk supply of New York City 
has formulated the following requirements, affecting the farms inspected 
by it and the handling of the milk obtained at these farms. The Com- 
mission offers those dealers complying with these requirements the 
right to use caps on their milk bottles, stamped : " Inspected. Milk 
Commission Medical Society, County of New York." 

The requirements are as follows : 

1. The Barnyard. 

(a) It must contain no manure in summer and none in contact with 

the stable in winter. 

(b) It must be well drained and kept reasonably clean. 

2, The Stable s, 

(a) The ventilation and light must be sufficient for the number of 

cows stabled, so that the barn shall be light and the air 
never close. 

(b) The floor shall be wood or cement, 

(c) The ceiling shall be tight, if a loft above is used. 

(d) Basins, hand brushes, clean water, soap and clean towels shall 

be provided in the barn or adjacent dairy room. 

(e) The stable shall be whitewashed in the fall, and in the spring 

if necessary. 

(f) A sufficient number of lanterns shall be provided to allow the 

milking to be carried on properly. 

(g) Clean the ceiling and sidings once a month. 

(h) The bedding shall be shavings, sawdust, dried leaves, cut 
straw, or other material that meets the approval of the 
Commission. 

(i) The soiled bedding must be removed daily. 



1 66 CLEAN MILK 

(j) The manure must be removed daily from the stalls and open 

manure-gutter. If a covered manure-gutter is used, it 

must be kept in a sanitary condition. 
(k) The application of land-plaster or lime on the floor daily is 

recommended. 
(1) Sweep the entire floor outside the stalls daily at least an hour 

before milking is begun. 

J. Water Supply. 

Pure water must be used for all purposes. It must be 
accessible and abundant. 

4.. The Cows. 

(a) Discard milk containing mucus or blood and that from any 

diseased cow. 

(b) Reject milk from any animal forty-five days before and six 

days after calving. 
, (c) The food given must be suitable both in amount and kind and 
' must not give a disagreeable flavor to the milk. 

(d) Keep the cows clean on flanks, belly, udder and tail. 

(e) Clip long hairs about udders and clip the tail sufficiently ta 

clear the ground. 

(f) The cows must be kept from lying down between the cleaning 

and milking. The best means of accomplishing this is by 
throat latches. 

(g) Clean the udder thoroughly before milking. 

5. The Milkers. 

(a) No milker or assistant shall have any connection with the milk 

at any stage of its production if he has any communicable 
disease, or if he has been exposed to scarlet fever, diphtheria, 
typhoid fever, or small-pox. 

(b) After having everything prepared for milking, thoroughly 

wash the hands with soap, water, and brush, so that they 
may be clean when milking is begun. 

(c) The hands and teats must be kept dry during milking. If 

they become moistened with milk, they must be wiped dry 
with a clean towel. 

(d) Suitable clean outer garments, such as overalls and jumpers, 

must be put on before milking. 

6. Utensils. 

(a) Strainers, whether metal, gauze, or cotton, must be absolutely 

clean when used for straining milk. 

(b) All dairy utensils must be absolutely clean and free from dust. 



MILK INSPECTION 167 

THE MILK. 

1. The milk must not be adulterated in anj- way. 

2. It must average 3.6 per cent, of butterfat. 

3. Cooling must begin at once. The temperature of the milk 
must be reduced to 50° F. within two hours and kept below that -tem- 
perature until delivered to the consumer. 

4. When delivered to the consumer the milk must not average 
over 100,000 bacteria per cubic centimeter from May ist to September 
30th, and not over 60,000 bacteria per cubic centimeter from October 
I St to April 30th. If the Commission's requirements are fulfilled, the 
bacteria will not be in excess of the number permitted. 

INSPECTIONS. 

1 . The farms which furnish inspected milk must always be open 
to inspection by the Commission. 

2. Samples of milk must be regularly submitted for bacteriologi- 
cal examination once a month. 



Fescr's Lactoscopc. 

This consists of a laro^e, hollow, orraduated orlass 
cylinder, into the centre of the base of which is inserted 
a smaller white glass cylinder marked with horizontal black 
lines. The test with the lactoscope depends upon the 
amount of dilution of milk required in order that the lines 
on the inner cylinder be seen when diluted milk is placed 
in the outer cylinder. The richer in fat, the more opaque 
is the specimen and the greater the dilution required. 

Thus 4 c.c. of milk are dropped from a pipette through 
the aperture in the top of the larger cylinder, and water is 
added in small amounts and thoroughly mixed with the 
milk by inverting the lactoscope with the finger over 
the top. When the milk is diluted sufficiently for the 
black lines on the inner white cylinder to be read, then the 
percentage of fat corresponds with the figures at the level 



1 68 CLEAN MILK 

of the mixture on the larger graduated cylinder (in an 
upright position). 

As has been stated, the lactometer is unreliable when 
used alone, but, when employed in conjunction with the 
lactoscope, quite accurate results may be obtained. While 
milk which has been skimmed and watered may show a 
normal specific gravity by the lactometer reading, so milk 
which is exceptionally rich in fat may be only watered so 
as to still be within the legal requirements as shown by the 
lactoscope. By the use of both instruments, either skim- 
ming or watering, or both skimming and watering, may be 
detected — unless the milk is still of averag;e richness. 

Harrington (Practical Hygiene, p. 3) says : "A normal 
specific gravity with a low percentage of fat will indicate 
skimming and watering ; low specific gravity with normal 
or low fat, watering ; and high specific gravity and low fat, 
skimming. Low specific gravity with a high fat will indi- 
cate unusual richness ; thus cream has a very low specific 
gravity, due to its preponderance of fat. As a test of the 
accuracy of this process of examination, the author caused 
to be analyzed under his supervision 1,714 specimens, which 
appeared by those tests to be of good quality, and of this 
number but eight were found to have deviated materially 
from the statute requirement of 13 per cent, of total 
solids." 

In case inspection by lactoscope and lactometer showed 
a specimen of milk below the legal requirements, this result 
should be corroborated by the exact methods of the 
laboratory before it would be wise to institute legal pro- 
ceedings. 



APPENDIX. 



Dairy Cows 

THE writer has not said anything about the best kind of cow for 
producing clean milk, because it is as impossible to affirm posi- 
tively which is the best breed of dairy cows as it would be to 
state which is the best race of human beings. Each breed has its own 
valuable characteristics which are in accord or otherwise with the 
views of different cattle owners, depending on the experience, tempera- 
ment or characteristics of the owner. 

The dairy breeds of chief importance are four : The Jerseys, 
Guernseys, Holsteins and Ayrshires. The Brown Swiss and Short 
Horn are called dual purpose cows ; that is, useful for milk and beef. 
For dairy purposes alone they are inferior to the first four breeds men- 
tioned, however. 

The milk of the Jerseys and Guernseys is rich in fat, but moder- 
ate in amount (the Guernsey milk of especially deep yellow color) ; 
the Holsteins are large milkers, but the percentage of fat in their milk 
is low ; while the Ayrshires occupy an intermediate position — in 
respect to quantity and richness of their milk — as compared with the 
Jerseys and Holsteins. The milk of Jerseys and Guernseys is not 
quite so digestible for infants on account of its large fat globules. 
The milk is said to vary more in composition, in case of the pure bred 
Jerseys (on account of their excitable temperaments), and these 
animals are possibly more prone to tuberculosis. Clean Jersey or 
Guernsey milk is, however, infinitely preferable to the ordinary dirty 
market milk of any other breed of cows, and the writer has found 
that clean milk from grade Jersey cows (containing 5 per cent, fat) 
will agree perfectly with infants, providing that it is diluted properlv 

in accordance with its fat content, see p. 131. The average consumer 

169 I 



I70 . CLEAN MILK 

of milk places much more importance on the richness of milk than 
any other quality. He can easily see and appreciate this quality, and 
the cleanliness of the milk he can not judge of — except to notice that 
it keeps well. Moreover, the average consumer buys the milk largely 
for the cream, which is commonly used for the breakfast cereal and 
coffee. For this reason a rich milk should bring the largest price, 
providing that it is clean. 

A Holstein or Ayrshire milk — or a clean milk obtained from cows 
of various breeds — may be sold for infants, and a 5 per cent. Jersey or 
Guernsey milk may be sold for general consumption at a little higher 
figure. 

If the whole milk is drunk by adults its richness is considered its 
most valuable quality. In Boston a milk containing 6 per cent, of 
fat — which may be obtained from some Jerseys and Guernseys — is 
sold for 16 cents a quart, and is especially intended for invalids. It 
is not unusual to separate the milk from different breeds on the farm 
and charge different prices for their milk. Milk intended for babies 
may appropriately contain about 4 per cent, of fat, and must be of 
special cleanliness and freshness. Rapid delivery of it is therefore 
necessary, which may require a special express rate on train and 
special wagon in the city. The bottles should be thoroughly pro- 
tected from dust by an outer cap of parchment, or tinfoil, over the 
ordinary paper cap. A milk for infants should constantly contain 
nearly the same quantity of fat, so as to give rise to a cream of uni- 
form composition. This is essential for the physician to calculate the 
fat in the different layers of cream (see p. 131), and such milk may be 
supplied if it is obtained from one breed of cows. For all these rea- 
sons the price of milk for infant feeding must be considerable — gener- 
ally 15 cents a quart retail. A five per cent, milk from Jerseys 
or Guernseys (not quite up to the certified standard for babies) 
may be sold for general household use for from 10 to 12 cents a 
quart. 

To give the reader an idea of representative cows of the dairy 
breeds we have included an account of a Guernsey, which heads the 
list of officially tested cows (taken from Hoard's Dairyman), and also 
tables showing the records of a trial — at the St. Louis Fair of 1905 — 
of Brown Swiss, Holsteins, Jerseys and Short Horns. The accom- 



!Pi<aTR I (Pig. 45. — Yeksa Sunbeam (Guernsey), No, 15,439, Adv. Reg. 33T. 




llelcndale vStock Farm, Athens, Wis. (Fred. Riethock, Milwaukee, Wis ) 



ri.ATE II (Fig. 46). — Shadybrook Gerben (Ilolstein). 




In 120 days produced S101.7 lbs. milk ; test 35 per cent, fat ; butter fat 282.6 ; 
butter, 330.36 lbs.; wci-lit, 1319 lbs. 



DAIRY cows 



171 



panying illustrations are of the best Jersey (Loretta D.) and the best 
Holstein (Shadybrook Gerben), at the Exposition, and of Yeksa Sun- 
beam (Guernsey), and Pansy of Woodroffe (Ayrshire), 

A Wisco7isin Guernsey. — Mr. Rietbrock's Yeksa Sunbeam (Plate 
I, Fig. 45) heads the list of officially tested cows. Her record for 
twelve consecutive months is 14,920.8 lbs. milk, and 857.15 lbs. fat, 
and is as follows : 

Month. Milk. 

October 1428.2 

November 1322.5 

December 1294.4 

January '05 1217.0 

February 1060.8 

March 1185.1 

April 1089.6 

May 1127.5 

June 1158.4 

July 1266.0 

August 1463.8 

September 1307.5 

Yeksa Sunbeam, having given 14920.8 lbs. of milk, containing 
857.15 lbs. fat, it follows that the average per cent, of fat in her milk 
was 5.744. Applying the Farrington scale to this quality of milk, 
we find that 100 lbs. of fat should yield ii8J4^ lbs. of butter, 
and consequently the 857.15 lbs. of fat would make 1013.56 lbs. of 
butter. 

Yeksa Sunbeam was 9^ years old at the commencement of the 
test. She was bred and reared by the late W. D. Richardson, at 
Garden City, Minn., and sold when a heifer to a milkman near Minne- 
apolis, from whom she was purchased by Mr. Rietbrock. Her sire 
was Yeksa's Prince, a son of the cow, Yeksa, formerly owned by Mr, 
I. J. Clapp, Kenosha, Wis., and her dam was The Sunbeam, also 
formerly owned in Wisconsin by Prof. Haecker, before he went to 
Minnesota. There is, therefore, some poetic justice in her return to 
Wisconsin to make her phenomenal record. 

In respect of feeding, I would say that during grazing season, the 
pastures of clover and blue grass were very good. We supplemented 



Per cent. 






fat. 


Lbs. fat. 


Total fat. 


569 


81.26 


— 


5-62 


74 32 


155-58 


6.08 


78.70 


234-28 


6.04 


73-51 


307-79 


5-75 


61.00 


36S.79 


6.05 


71.70 


440.49 


5-79 


63.09 


503 58 


5-75 


64.83 


56S.41 


5-25 


60.82 


629.23 


5-88 


74-44 


703-67 


5-42 


79-34 


783.01 


5.67 


74.14 


857-15 



172 



CLEAN MILK 



this, during the fore part of last summer, with some clover hay fed in 
the barn, since the grass was very washy in the early part of the sea- 
son on account of so much rain. During July and August we added 
to the pasturage a soiling ration of peas and oats, the peas being in a 
green state, the kernel formed in the pod, but not yet ripened, and fed 
it up to the time when the pea was quite hard, but will say that it was 
mostly during the period that we would call peas good to eat on the 
table as green peas. 

In August and September, we also fed some green corn stalks. I 
cannot call it green corn, because there were no ears formed on it. 
It was from a planting made about the 20th of June and close 
together. 

During the late fall and winter of 1904, we also fed Yeksa Sun- 
beam, and some other cows, from 5 to 10 pounds of rutabagas. The 
roughage during the winter season was mostly clover hay. We fed 
also some alfalfa. I had 16 tons, and this was consumed by the 
calves, 10 to 12 in number, the 16 cows in the test and about the same 
number of other cows not being tested (the test cows got a larger 
• allowance of alfalfa than the others) . 

During the winter, we also fed Yeksa Sunbeam from 25 to 30 
pounds of silage. This silage had very little grain in it, since our 
corn did not mature very well last year, but it was succulent, good 
feed. 

Now, as regards grain ration, we made a grain mixture composed 
of four parts wheat bran, two parts ground oats, two parts Buffalo 
gluten feed, one part Old Process oil meal. During part of the year 
we fed this oil meal in pea size — little kernels big as a pea. During 
the months of January, February and March, we added to this grain 
mixture one part of corn meal. 

Of the above grain mixture, we fed Yeksa Sunbeam, during the 
months of October, November and December, 15 pounds a day. We 
reduced this by about i lb., feeding 14 lbs. a day, during January, 
February, March and April. For the month of May, we reduced her 
feed to 12 lbs. of the mixture and, as we got her on to the grass, and 
the grass improved in June, I think we reduced it still more. I find 
that a report has been made that she was fed only 6 lbs. of grain a day 
during June. I think 9 or 10 lbs. would be more nearly corvect. 



Pr.ATE III {V\g. 47).— Pansy of Wootlroffe fAj'tshire), Mo, iS.gTj. 




Cliampioii at National Dairy Show, Chicago. (Property of Geo. Wm. Ballon, 

Middleton, N. Y.) 



Plate IV (Fig. 48).— Loretta D. (Jersey). 




DAIRY COWS 173 

During July, August and September of this year, she was fed daily a 

grain ration of the above mixture of 9 to 10 lbs. All these grain 
rations were fed in three meals, morning, noon and night. 

RECORD OF THE BEST, POOREST AND AVERAGE COW IN EACH HERD FOR THE 
120 DAYS AT ST. LOUIS FAIR, I905.* 

Brown Swiss. Holstein. Jersey. Shorthorn. 

Milk per day, Ibs.-- 

Best cow No. 1-5 1. o No. 20-67.5 No. 37-48.4 No. 63-43.4 

Poorest cow No. 3-3S.5 No. 7-47.1 No. 36-38. 8 . No. 62-21.4 

Average COW .. . 44.2 53.4 41.5 34.6 

Test of Milk- 
Best cow 3.4 3.5 4,8 4.0 

Poorest cow 3.8 3.2 4.1 3.9 

Average cow... 3.62 3.43 4.7 3.8 

Butter fat per day, lbs. — 

Best COW 1.748 2.355 2.334 1-737 

Poorest COW i-477 i-507 1-615 0-843 

Average cow... 1-596 1.832 1-936 1-277 

Butter per day, lbs. — 

Best cow 2.042 2.753 2.750 2.037 

Poorest cow i-73i '-755 1.898 0.988 

Average cow... 1.870 2.12 2.28 ^-495 

Solids-not-fat per day, lbs. — 

Best cow 4-363 5-171 4-357 3-720 

Poorest cow 3-585 3-614 3-44i 1.902 

Average cow... 3-919 4-239 3-634 2.980 

Feed cost of milk, per qt.f — 

Best cow .0109 .0090 .0110 .0109 

Poorest cow. .. . -0139 .0122 -0130 -0215 

Average cow .. . .0124 .0107 .0116 -0132 

Feed cost of butter, per lb. — 

Best cow .136 .110 .097 .117 

Poorest cow .155 .164 .132 .234 

Average cow... .147 .135 -io5 -i53 
No. of cows in 

herd 5 15 25 28 



♦Illustrations and tables of records and rations from Daity Cow Demonstration, at 
Louisiana Purchase E.xposition, 1905. Edited by Prof, E. H. Fiin-ington, 
t Assuming two pounds to the quart. 



1 74 CLEAN MILK 

ONE DAYS RATION OF ONE COW IN EACH HERD AT ST. LOUIS FAIR, I905. 

Brown 
Feed in Pounds. Swiss. 

Alfalfa hay 7 

Cut alfalfa hay — 

Corn silage — ■ 

Green cut corn 40 

Green cow peas — 

Wheat bran — 

Linseed (oil meal) — 

Ground oats — 

Hominy feed 8 

Gluten feed — 

Corn meal — 

Corn hearts — 

Cottonseed meal i 

Distiller's grains — 

Union grains 15 

Total 71 

Including grain 24 

Such records as these are probably a revelation to many a man 
who has fed atid milked cows for years. It is not customary to give 
more than five to ten pounds of grain per day to cows on the home 
farms, and the majority of them probably get less than five pounds. 
A capacity for assimilating large rations is necessary for producing 
large quantities of milk and bfitter, and most of these World's Fair 
cows were fed to their limit of endurance. A daily feeding per cow 
of near twenty pounds of grain, together with thirty to sixty pounds 
of green feed, was not uncommon, although there were some varia- 
tions in the total amount during the 120 days of the test. 

Dehorning Calves 

It is now generally recognized that all milch cows should be 
dehorned, to prevent injury to themselves (in tearing off a horn, etc.), 
to other animals, to stables and to persons. As the operation of 
removing the horns from grown animals is unpleasant, and detri- 
mental for the time to the patient, the following simple method. 



Holstein, 


Jersey. 


Shorthorn. 


— 


18 


9 


15 


6 


— 


— 


16 


24 


15 


— 


— 


35 


— 


— 


2 


3 


4 


— 


2 


2 


— 


2-5 


2 


5 


2.5 


3 


— 


5-0 


2 


— 


1-5 


— 


— 


2.5 


2 


I 


— 


2 
4 


14 


— 


87 


59 


54 


22 


19 


21 



MANAGEMENT OF HAND SEPARA TORS i ^r^ 

recommended by the English Board of Agriculture and found success- 
ful in practice, should be followed in the treatment of calves : 

" Clip the hair from the top of the horn, when the calf is from 
two to five days old ; slightly moisten the end of a stick of caustic 
potash and rub the tip of each horn firmly for about one-quarter of a 
minute, or until a slight impression has been made on the centre of 
the horn. Repeat this two to four times at intervals of five minutes. 
If a little blood appears in the centre of the horn, after one or more 
applications, only one more slight rubbing with the potash will be 
necessary. 

' ' The operation should not be performed on a calf over nine days 
old. Caustic potash can be obtained from any druggist in the form of 
a white stick (about as large as a pencil), and when not in use should 
be kept in a glass stoppered bottle in a dry place. One man should 
hold the calf while another uses the caustic. Roll a piece of tinfoil or 
paper about the end of the stick of caustic to protect the fingers of the 
operator from contact with it. Do not moisten the stick too much or 
the caustic will spread around the horn and destroy the flesh. For 
the same reason prevent the calf from wetting its head for several 
da^'s after the operation. Be careful to rub the caustic on the centre 
of the horn and not around it. Caustic potash is a poison and must 
be kept in a safe place." 

Management of Hand Separators 

There is.no higher authority on dairy matters than Prof. E. H. 
Farrington, of the University of Wisconsin Experiment Station, to 
whom we have had the pleasure of referring on several occasions in 
the previous pages. I can not do better than to quote the rules laid 
down by him for the management of hand separators. 

1. Place the separator on a firm foundation in a clean, well-ventilated room 
where it is free from all offensive odors. 

2. Thoroughly clean the separator after each skimming ; the bowl should be 
taken apart and washed, together with all the tinware, every time the separator 
is used ; if allowed to stand for even one hour without cleaning there is danger 
of contaminating the next lot of cream from the sour bowl. This applies to all 
kinds of cream separators. 

3. Wash the separator bowl and all tinware with cold water and then with 
warm water, using a brush to polish the surface and clean out the seams and 



176 CLEAN MILK 

cracks ; finally scald with boiling water, leaving the parts of the bowl and tinware 
to dry in some place where they will be protected from dust. Do not wipe the 
bowl and tinware with a cloth or drying towel ; heat them so hot with steam or 
boiling water that wiping is unnecessary. 

4. Rinse the milk receiving can and separator bowl with a quart or two of 
hot water just before running milk into the separator. 

5. Cool the cream as it comes from the separator, or immediately after, to a 
temperature near 50^ F. and keep it cold until delivered. 

6. Never mix warm and cold cream or sweet and slightly tainted cream. 

7. Provide a covered and clean water tank for holding the cream cans and 
change the water frequently in the tank so that the temperature does not rise 
above 60** F. A satisfactory arrangement may be made by allowing running 
water to flow through the cream tank to the stock watering tank. 

8. Skim the milk immediately after each milking, as it is more work to save 
the milk and separate once a day, and less satisfactory, than skimming while the 
milk is warm, since the milk must be heated again when saved until another 
milking. 

9. A rich cream, testing 35 per cent, fat or more, is the most satisfactory to 
both farmer and factory. The best separators will skim a rich cream as efficiently 
as a thin cream and more skim milk is left on the farm when a rich cream is sold. 

10. Cream should be perfectly sweet, containing no lumps or clots when 
sampled and delivered to the haulers or parties buying it. 

There is a good demand for sweet cream and a perfectly clean, sweet and 
satisfactory cream can easily be supplied either to a retailer, an ice cream maker, 
or a creamery by keeping clean the separator, tinware, strainer-cloth and water 
tank, and the cream cold. 

To Keep Records of Individual Cows. 

Printed forms for making records* should be used. These con- 
sist of single sheets of stiff paper which are ruled so as to permit of 
keeping a record of the night's and morning's milk in pounds and 
ounces for one month, and also supply space to note the average per 
cent, of butter fat, if taken once or twice a month. One sheet may 
be used for 10 or 20 to 30 cows according to the size ordered. 

Each cow must be named or numbered to tise these sheets. The 
metal tags for insertion in the cow's ear are most suitable for num- 
bering. As soon as each cow is milked the milk is poured in a special 
weighing pail and the weight is then recorded on the milk sheet. A 
spring scale sold for the purpose is most convenient. This is arranged 
so as to allow for the weight of the weighing pail in order that it will 
not have to be subtracted from the total weight of pail and milk at 
each weighing. 



* Printed forms for keeping cow records are sold very cheaply by Hoard's Dairyman, 
Port Atkinson, Wis. 



♦ VALUE OF cows I'j^ 

The milk is poured back from the weighing pail into the mills 
pail, to mix it thoroughly, and a tablespoonful of the mixed milk is 
poured into a half pint bottle containing one corrosive sublimate tablet 
for preserving milk (to be had of any dairy supply company). The 
bottle should be corked and a similar sample of night's and morning s 
milk should be added to the bottle for three days to one week, the bottle 
being shaken each time new samples of milk are poured into it. The 
bottle is to be labelled with the cow's name supplying the milk. The 
milk in the bottle then represents that from a number of milkings 
from the same cow and is called a composite sample. The composite 
sample is tested for fat by the Babcock machine (see p. 144). The 
night and morning milk of each cow ought to be weighed and 
recorded at least once a week during the year and a fat test made from 
a composite sample twice a month, in order to determine thoroughly 
the value of a cow. 

Value of Cows 

I may be permitted to submit the following quotation in regard 
to the value of a cow : 

" The basis of valuation as set forth by Prof. S. F. Cooley, of Vt., 
is that a cow is worth, above what her carcass will fetch, the sum on 
which her annual profit will pay six per cent, interest, two per cent, 
taxes and insurance, twenty-five per cent, depreciation, or thirty- three 
per cent, total, 

' ' Twenty-five per cent, depreciation means a sinking fund which 
will pay for the animal in four years, and presupposes the average 
period of usefulness to be four years. On this basis, we get the fol- 
lowing results in regard to the values of cows of different grades : 

Annual pro- Value of 
duct lbs. milk at 11.50 Cost of Value of 

Kind of Cow. milk. per cwt. feed. Profit. cow. 

Average 3,000 I45 $45 foo $00 

Fair 5,000 75 50 25 75 

Good... 7,000 105 60 44 135 

Choice 10,000 150 75 75 225 

Pietertje II 30,000 450 100 350 1,050 

"Asa business proposition, the difference in value here repre- 
sented appears correct. But the market does not so rate them. A 



178 CLEAN MILK 

poor cow costs $30 and brings $25 in four years, during which time 
she sunk ^5 more than she had brought. An average cow is worth 
what her carcass will fetch, and no more. A fair cow costs $35 to $40 
and leaves her buyer $50 to the good, in four years. A good cow 
costs $50, and you double on investment the first year. A choice cow 
costs $75, and that is the amount of her annual profit. Pietertje II 
is worth $1,000." 

Plans of Barns and Milk Rooms 

In the following pages will be found illustrated and described the 
stables and milk rooms of two farms supplying clean milk to Seattle, 
Washington. 

The first farm is owned by J. D. Farrell, Esq., and is not con- 
ducted solely for profit or the support of its owner and may be regarded 
as one type of plant. The other is owned by W. H. Paulhamus, Esq., 
of Sumner, Wash. Mr. Paulhamus was the first to attempt to supply 
Seattle with clean milk and is shipping some thousand quarts a day 
from his own and three neighboring farms. His arrangements for 
handling the milk are therefore adapted to caring for a considerable 
quantity. 

Mr. Farrell's stable for 40 cows has a floor, manure trench and feed- 
ing gutter of concrete with cement finish. The cows face toward a 
central feeding aisle. Behind the manure trench there is a walk five feet 
wide to the side of the building. The manure trench is eighteen 
inches wide. The length of the stalls is — from the front edge of the 
manure trench to that of the feeding gutter — six and one-half feet. 
The width of the stalls is thirty-nine inches for some, and forty-three 
inches for others, to accommodate Jerseys and Holsteins. The feed- 
ing aisle in front of the cattle is nine feet wide. The feeding gutter 
is also used for watering each time before feeding, when the water is 
let out. The height of the stable, on the sides, is seven feet four 
inches, and the ceiling is arched up toward the centre. 

The walls and ceiling are double, with air-space between, and the 
ventilation is after the King system. The cement is brought up four 
feet on the walls, and the rest of the walls and the ceiling are of 
matched and planed boards, tightly fitted, and the whole painted 
white. The gutters for manure slope from six to ten inches deep at 




w 



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bo 
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o 

.El 

CO 



PLANS OF BARNS AND MILK ROOMS 



179 



the lower end, and drain into pipes carried a considerable distance to a 
lower level than the stable. 

Stalls. — The rear portion of each side of each stall is a gate. This 
gate is hinged and fastened as shown in plate. The dimensions of the 
gate are twenty-eight inches from top to bottom, and forty-four inches 
wide, and the lower edge is sixteen inches from the floor. The sta- 
tionary front part of the side of each stall is thirty-four inches wide 
and fifty inches high, from top to floor. Its lower edge is ten inches 
from the floor, in the rear part, and two inches above the gutter for 
feeding in front. The feeding and watering gutter, of cement, is 

Fig. 45- 



i Boilen. "V ' ^^"^ 's- ' Aio- Z 



- 



^ Bowls. (F 

Lavatory 



Bath 



Ikm/A hMAV/J/M/ 



Tub. 



Steriliser. 



Wash Room- 



Milk Room 



\. 



Office. 



Shippins 
Room 



'I 



V/////////A w/////^A Y////////y'//^ y///m. 



Pia^^a Platform. 



Sketch Showing Ground Plan of Milk House Owned by J. D. Farrell, Esq., 

Renton, Washington. 

eight inches deep and one foot wide. The gates forming the front of 
each stall are forty-two inches in their perpendicular measurement. 
They are adjustable and afiixed to the top and sides of the stall by 
small chains with hooks on the end. 

For the larger cows, the upper part of the gate may be tipped 
forward and fastened to an extension of the top rod forming the side 
of the stall (see Plate V). In the case of the smaller cows, the top of 
the gate is tipped backward toward the manure trench, crowding the 
cow back so as to make her stand on the edge of the manure trench 
(see Plate V). 

The milk from the stable is brought into the wash room and is 
hoisted onto a raised platform and poured into a strainer marked ii)^ 



.l8o CLEAN MILK 

J 

from which elevation it flows into a funnel and conducting tube through 
the wall into the collecting tank for the Star cooler (2) and cream 
cooler (3). From this collecting tank a tube also supplies the separa- 
tor (4), see Plate . The raised platform shown in Plate VI was a 
mistake, as it should have been lowered so far as would permit a man 
standing on it to pour the milk into the strainer shown. It is much 
too high, and the platform — instead of requiring a ladder — would have 
only required a few steps leading up to it. The tank under the plat- 
form was intended to hold cracked ice, on which water was to be 
sprayed for supplying the ice water section of the Star cooler in sum- 
mer. But this was found unnecessary, as a cask could be placed on 
the floor containing a coil of pipe to cool the water as described on 
p. 82. The numbers (5) and (6 in the milk room are supposed to 
represent the bottle filUng apparatus for milk and cream shown in 
plate. The bottles, when filled, are kept over night in a series of 
tanks, one over the other (7), as water is had from a neighboring 
spring at a temperature of 46 deg. F. to fill the tanks. The bottles 
are shipped on ice in galvanized iron cases. The empty bottles 
are delivered on the elevated piazza platform, in front of the wash 
room, and the bottles and all the milk utensils are washed, put in 
the sterilizer and taken out through the other door in the milk room 
when it is desired to use them. The milk room is only connected 
(with one door) with the shipping room and is ventilated by a system 
similar to that recommended for barns . The floors of all the rooms in 
the milk house are of cement, and the walls of cement-plaster, covered 
with many coats of white enamel paint. The cement-plaster is laid on 
wooden laths and the construction of the building is of wood. It is 
steam heated in the lavatory and wash room. The climate is very 
mild hereabouts and rarely gets much below freezing. 

Sketches of the barn and milk house owned by W. H. Paulhamus, 
Esq., are reproduced here with the hope that they may prove of prac- 
tical value to those intending to handle clean milk on a considerable 
scale for profit. 

The barn (Plate IX) is built of wood and ceiled within with 
smooth, matched boards (shiplap) painted with cold water white 
paint. The space between the outer and inner boarding of the walls 
is filled in with sawdust. The inside of the barn is eleven feet high, 



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PLANS OF BARNS AND MILK ROOMS 



l8l 



•which is higher than is generally permissible with the King system of 
ventilation to prevent loss of animal heat. 

The climate is, however, extremely mild, the temperature seldom 
dropping much below freezing in winter hereabouts. The King system 
is nevertheless followed ; there being ten inlets, between ten windows 

Fig. 46. 



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o 



8v 



JO 



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.■z 



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C = 



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-4^ 



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S/z- 



UVVsWVWWVN- 



JO 



35' 

Rough Sketch of Ground Plan of Barn for Forty Cows, W. H. Paulhamus, Esq., 

Sumner, Washington. 

(10) on each side of the barn, near the ceiling. These openings are 
six by six inches, and bring the air in shafts between the layers of the 
walls of the building from a point outside near the ground. The 
windows in the sides of the barn are three and one-half feet square, 
and between them in the sketch may be seen lines (No. 8) showing 
the point of entrance of the inlets for fresh air. 

The shafts for outlet of air are in the opposite corners of the 



lg2 CLEAN MILK 

building (7) and are two feet square with openings at the floor of 
the same dimensions. 

One special feature is the arrangement of the cement which covers 
the whole floor, except as noted. The entire floor slopes about one 
foot from one end of the building, so, while the gutters are the same 
depth, this permits of a flow for drainage. The cows face the outside 
of the building and the floor of their stalls is of two inch matched, 
planed Oregon pine, except for a strip of cement eight inches wide on 
the side of the gutter (6) on which the hind feet of the animal rest. 
All the rest of the floor back of the cows is of concrete with cement 
finish, while the side aisles in front of the cattle are of wood, like the 
floor of the stalls. The cows do not have the slippery, cold, cement 
floor to lie (or fall) upon, which Mr. Paulhamus believes an improve- 
ment over an entire cement floor. The stalls are shown in Plate IX. 
There are so many kinds of stalls that it is impossible to say which is 
the best, but these are simple, inexpensive and satisfactory, as soon as 
the cows get used to them. 

At one end of the barn are several rooms. One (i) is intended 
for keeping supplies, as baled hay, roots and grain in sacks, etc. One 
on the opposite side is a wash room with sink and hot and cold water 
(B), and a sheet iron stove (A) for wood with a coil of pipe inside to 
heat water (see p. 85). There is also a closet {d) for keeping the 
milking clothes. The next room (3) is a rather novel arrangement of 
the owner and assuredly deser\^es attention. 

This room has no connection with the inside of the barn, except 
by a tube for conveying milk at C. Here may be found a pair of 
steps which each milker ascends the moment he fills the pail. The 
milk is poured into a sterile tin funnel which carries it onto a Star 
cooler*, from which it falls, immediately cooled, into a can. The 
can, when full, is taken to the milk house (Fig. 47) some 200 feet 

away. 

The room (3) is reached from outside the barn and — with screened 
door and window, and smooth, clean, painted walls and ceiling, and 



* The milk flows from the funnel (which is in the open central aisle of the 
barn) through the wall, which separates it from room 3, and in that room falls on. 
the cooler. 



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03 


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PLANS OF BARNS AND MILK ROOMS 



\o 



cement floor — makes a good place for immediate cooling of the milk. 
The horizontal ceiling of the barn leaves much space in the roof, in 
which grain is stored. The grain is brought down in spouts to the 
bins at (2) and hay could be delivered from the loft above in the 
room(i) without causing any dust in the barn. The ceiling of the 
barn is absolutely dust tight with double floor and paper between. 

The barn is one hundred by thirty-five feet inside ; the centre 

Fig. 47. 




(6) O Wash Room 



h' 



I I ■ -<7— "'' 



8 



a-> 



a-. t>- c- d ■ e. 



VJWMWMA 1 



\ 



Rough Sketch of Ground Plan of Milk House. W. H. Paulhamus, Esq., 
Sumner, Washington. 

aisle eight feet, and gutters eighteen inches wide. The side aisles are 
five and one-half feet wide. 

Box stalls for sick cows, or cows about to calve, are in another 
building. 

The buildings used for the milk rooms (Fig. 47) proper were 
altered for their present purpose and were situated farther from the 
barn than is necessary or desirable. 

A sketch of the ground plan of the milk house is shown 
in Fig. 47. 

The floors of the milk room and wash room are of concrete with 



1 84 CLEAN MILK 

cement finish, boarded inside with planed, matched boards (walls and 
ceiling), painted white and ventilated after the King sj-stem. The 
space between the inner and outer layer of the walls is stuffed with 
sawdust and the rooms are very high-studded (fourteen feet). The 
sterilizer (8) is wholly of concrete, which is described on p. gi, and, 
if the buildings had not been already built before they were put to 
their present use, it is probable that the most convenient place for the 
sterilizer would have been in the wall between the wash and milk 
rooms, as in Mr. Farrell's (Plates VII, VIII). The sterilizer is supplied 
with steam from the 20-horse power boiler (6) in the wash room. 

This sterilizer is an original feature introduced by Mr. Paulhamus 
and works beautifully. It is of enormous size (see p. 91 and Plate XI) 
and very inexpensive, costing some $80. In cold climates it would have 
to be inside the building as suggested above. Another novel feature is 
the washing machine shown as (No. 12) in the sketch in the wash room. 
This was patented after its introduction at Mr. Paulhamus's farm and 
now sold by The Chas. H. Lilly Co., of Seattle. The machine con- 
sists of four tanks, a, b, and c, d and e. In a, is held warm water, in 
b and c, is contained alkali and warm water, and in d, is plain warm 
water. The three lines {g^ running lengthwise in the sketch, through 
the middle of the machine, represent three pipes running over the top 
of the tanks. These pipes are perforated with holes which are placed 
so as to correspond with the opening in each milk bottle when the 
bottles are inverted on wooden trays. Each wooden tray is made of 
slats which, in crossing, leave holes fitting the neck of an inverted milk 
bottle. The trays holds twenty-four bottles in three rows, so that 
when the tray is slid in place on top of the machine, each row of bot- 
tles is over one of the three pipes in the centre of the machine, and 
each bottle is inverted over* one of the perforations in the pipes. On 
one side of the machine are three rotary pumps (/) worked by the 
engine at (7). These continually pump water from the tanks into the 
the pipes, from which it is forced out in jets into the interior of each 
inverted milk bottle. The water then runs out of the bottles back 
into the tank over which the bottles are resting. The pipe shown on 
either side of the top of the machine at (Ji) is perforated with holes 
from which water is thrown over and cleans the outside of the bottles 
as they are pushed through the machine. 



Plate xr. 




This photograph shows the interior of the large all-concrete and cement 
sterilizer at the Panlhamus farm. The door is of iron. All the dairy utensils 
which come in contact with milk in any way are put in this chamber and kept 
at Sia** F for one hour daily. For description, see p. 91 , 



PLANS OF DARNS AND MILK ROOMS 185 

The method of working is as follows : A tray holding twenty- 
four inverted bottles is placed on the top of the machine over the tank 
{a). The warm water in the central pipes is pumped up through the 
holes in the pipes into each bottle, thus rinsing it out. Another tray 
being pushed into the machine shoves the first tray over tank {b). 
Here the interior of the bottles is sprayed with lye and water. The 
introduction of another traj^ moves the first tray over the tank (<:). 
The tank {c) is really one with {h), the bottles here merely draining 
back into the tank again, no water being pumped into them. Another 
tray being placed in the machine pushes the first tray to {d). Here 
the bottles are rinsed with plain warm water to remove the Ij'e, and, 
at (.f), boiling water is injected instead of water to sterilize (for one 
minute) the bottles. About i , 500 bottles may be washed in one hour by 
this labor-saving device. The bottles must, however, be washed by hand 
if they contain old milk and have not been previously rinsed by the 
milk consumer. Also, one minute sterilization -•' is not sujB&cient and 
they must go for one hour's sterilization in the large sterilizer, when 
certified milk is desired. The water is heated by steam from the 
boiler (6) which runs the engine. A metal hood covers the whole top 
of the washing machine to prevent the escape of the water which is 
thrown from the pipes on each side over the exterior of the bottles. 
The machine with pumps costs about $200, and is sixteen feet long 
and twentj'-six inches wide (see Plate X). 

The platform (13) and floor of the milk-receiving room are some 
fifty inches from the ground. In the milk-receiving room at (9) is a 
raised platform three feet from the floor on which are scales holding a 
large milk-receiving tank in which is a Star trap strainer. After the 
milk is weighed it is run from a faucet into a funnel, conducting the 
milk through the wall, into a tank (10) holding some one hundred 
gallons, and from thence is drawn off into the Star bottle filling tank 
(11). The milk is cooled, as described, at the barn (p. 182), and the 
water supplying the Star cooler is cooled in summer by running it 
through a coil of pipe in a cask of ice water (see p. 82). 



* It is perfectly possible to sterilize milk bottles absolutely, if boiling water is 
pumped into the bottles for a longer time, as shown Dy bacteriological examina- 
tions of bottles washed by similar machines. The exhaust steam from the engine 
may be used to heat water to boiling point. 



1 86 



CLEAN MILK 



A sketch of the cow stall used by Mr. Paulhamus is shown in 
Pig. 48. 

The floor has been described (p. 182) as consisting of cement for 
eight inches in front of the gutter and (forward of this point) of two 
inches kiln-dried, planed, tongued and grooved Oregon pine. The 
dimensions are marked in the sketch, but the length of the stalls vary 

Fig. 48. 










^/i-S 



Side and Rear View of Stall in Cow Stable of W. H. Paulhamus, Esq., 
Sumner, Washington. 



from four and one-half feet to five feet long, from the gutter to the 
manger, to accommodate cows (Jerseys) of different sizes. The floor of 
the stall slopes some three inches from front to rear. The stalls begin 
four and one-half feet long at one end of the stable and gradually 
lengthen till they are five feet long at the other end. Each side of 
stall is really a gate opening toward the right, to give more room to 
the milker and groomer, when open. They could of course be hung 
om hinges so as to swing in either direction. 



Plate; XII.— The improved "Drown" Stall. 




View shows cement mangers and floors fitted with iron stalls having two-way- 
movable partitions, 




The Drown vStall is one of the best made and is an improvement over either 
stall shown in that the side gates give more room to the attendant and open in 
either direction sideways and also upward. The raised feeding trench and hay 
rack are good features. 

The stall is patented and sold by M. L. Drown, of Madison, Wis. It is in 
use by some of the agricultural experiment stations and leading dairy farmers 
of this country. 



PASTEURIZED MILK 187 

The gates are fastened with a wooden sliding bolt (not shown). 
The bottom of the rear posts may (for the lower eighteen inches) 
consist of galvanized iron pipe set below in the cement and above in 
the wooden scantling, for the sake of cleanliness. At the rear of the 
stall is seen a chain which is attached to rings in the post, on either 
side of the stall, by means of snap hooks. The manger has two com- 
partments, the lower for grain, and the upper or forward being for 
hay — with a sliding rack between the two which may be removed or 
lifted a little to clean out the floor of the manger. (Sometimes the 
whole manger, arranged with sides reaching to the floor of the stable, 
is made movable so that it may be adjusted to the length of the cow 
and locked by pegs fitting in the side posts.) The cross-piece at (C) is 
necessary to keep the cows from pressing forward and climbing over 
the manger. It must be adjusted somewhat to the height of the cow. 
This stall is convenient and inexpensive as compared to the iron stalls 
(Plates V and VI). There is nothing on the floor of the stable to col- 
lect dirt, as the manger does not touch the floor, but is eight inches 
above it. 

Pasteurized Milk. 

Milk is now thought to be truly a living fluid for some time after 
leaving the cow — unless it is killed by pasteurization. Pasteurized or 
dead milk is known to be less digestible and nutritious than clean, 
raw milk. The basis of this statement is as follows •. Babies fed con- 
tinuously on pasteurized milk are very apt to develop anemia, mal- 
nutrition, scurvy or rickets — the latter serious disorders dependent 
upon improper nutrition. Obstinate constipation is likewise generally 
seen in infants reared upon pasteurized milk. The same conditions are 
observed in calves which are fed exclusively upon pasteurized milk. 
They fail to gain properly in weight and suffer from under-development. 

Heating milk coagulates to some extent its albumin, renders the 
milk less coaguable by rennet in the stomach, and destroys the enzymes 
or ferments of milk. All these results account for its lessened digesti- 
bility. 

It has been shown that the poisonous waste-products, developed 
in the growth of germs in dirty milk, are not destroyed by pasteuriza- 
tion. As, for example, the special poisons arising from those types of 



1 88 CLEAN MILK 

germs (colon bacilli) convej^ed to milk in cow manure. Moreover, 
while the milk may appear by examination to be apparently free from 
germs after thorough pasteurization, what of the mj^riads of dead bodies 
of germs killed b}^ the process which may remain in the milk ! A 
milk contractor in Boston sent out a laboratory report on his milk to 
show that before pasteurization it contained seven million germs to the 
quarter teaspoonful of milk and only a thousand after the process. 

Another serious objection to the use of pasteurized milk is the 
fact that its condition can not readily be discovered by ordinary tests. 
The lactic acid bacilli, being easily killed by heat, pasteurized milk 
may not show acidity or change in taste or appearance and j^et be 
wholly unfit for food owing to the existence of millions of germs which 
do not cause the milk to change but are prejudicial to health. 

The following method promises better than any yet known for the 
safe sterilization of milk. 

Budde's Process for Sterilizing Milk. — Fifteen c.c. (or one table- 
spoonful) of three per cent, solution of hydrogen peroxide are added 
to each quart of milk in bulk, as soon after milking as possible, and 
the milk is then heated to 51 deg. to 52 deg, C. (123.8 deg. to 125.6 
deg. F.) for three hours. By this method the oxygen in the hydrogen 
peroxide is liberated by an enzyme in the milk (catalase) , with the aid 
of the heat, and the nascent oxygen acts as an efficient germicide. 
All the non-spore bearing micro-organisms are killed — including all 
disease germs — except those of anthrax. In fact, 99.9 per cent, of the 
germs in milk are destroyed by this method and nothing is left in the 
milk but a little water which is too small in quantity to alter the com- 
position of milk appreciably. 

The milk is unaltered in odor, taste or appearance, and the 
cream rises as usual while no trace of peroxide remains. Milk thus 
treated will, moreover, keep unchanged in warm weather for eight to 
ten days. 

This process seems to solve the question of treating dirty milk 
when clean milk can not be procured, and would appear to be of inesti- 
mable benefit in the preparation of infant's milk when of uncertain 
quality, and for keeping such milk to be used by an infant during a 
considerable journey. 



TLiTE XIII. —The Burrell-Lawretice-Keiiiiedv Cow Milker. 




The plate shows the main iron piping above the stanchions connected by 
rubber tubing with the pulsators placed on top of each milk pail between each 



two cows. 




Pl^ATK XIV.— The Pulsator. 



MILKING MACHINES 



Milking Machines. 



189 



The milking machine, together with the single service paper milk 
bottle, bid fair to practically revolutionize the methods of producing 
clean milk. 

If these two inventions prove as valuable as they promise, the 
whole question of clean milk production will be solved. The milk 
will be obtained nearly sterile and be immediately cooled and run into 
sterile bottles. The status of the milking machine seems still a matter 
of some uncertainty with every indication of a successful future. The 
machine we will describe appears to be one of the most efficient 
and has been in operation for some years. At present it is being used 
by the leaders in the dairy industrj^, as by the Walker- Gordon people 
and H. B. Gurler. 

The Burrell-Iyawrence-Kennedy Cow Milker comprises the 
following : 

1. A vacuum pump operated by power, steam, electric motor, 
gas engine, tread mill (bull), a head of water over thirty feet, etc. 

2. One inch iron piping connecting the vacuum pump with a 
vacuum tank, supplied with guage and safety valve, and thence 
about the barn for attachment to the milkers. 

3. The Milkers. — A milker consists of a milk pail (heavy enough 
to withstand a vacuum), on which is placed a pulsator, which in its 
turn is connected with one-half inch rubber tubing to four teat cups 
fitted on the teats of the cow. 

The vacuum is about equal to one-half an atmosphere, fifteen 
to seventeen inches, and the vacuum tank is connected with the 
system to insure a uniform, safe and known suction. The pulsator 
(Plate XIV) is the salient feature of this machine. It rests on top 
of the milk pail, to which it fits tightly as soon as the exhaust is turned 
on, because of atmospheric pressure and because it rests on a rubber 
gasket. The pulsator is connected with the iron pipes which run 
along over the stanchions (Plate XIII) by one-half inch rubber tubing 
fitted to the nipple at its base. The two stop-cocks, seen in the plate 
of the pulsator, are each connected with rubber tubes, one taking the 



190 



CLEAN MILK 



milk from the four teats of a cow on one side, and the other from the 
cow to the other side of the pulsator. 

When the machine is in operation the cow's udder is cleaned, the 
teat cups (of five sizes) are adjusted, and a milk pail — placed between 
each two cows — is surmounted by a pulsator attached by rubber tub- 
ing, both to the iron piping above, and to the teats of the cows on 
each side (Plate XIII). That is, each milker (milk pail, pulsator, rubber 
connections and teat cups) is capable of milking two cows at the same 
time. 

A stop-cock is turned and the suction applied by the pulsator to 
the cow's teats. By this mechanism there is exerted intermittently 
not only suction but also compression on the outside of the teat, simu- 
lating the action produced in hand milking. Glass windows in the 
tubing leading from the teats inform the operator as to the flow of 
milk. Most cows do not object to the use of the machine. 

This machine will practically prevent the initial contamination of 
milk, and will render the production of clean milk more simple and 
eas}' than by any method heretofore known. The rubber tubing, 
through which the milk passes, can be sterilized and made free of 
germs by boiling or by steam and is kept in brine. The pulsator and 
milk pail can be cleaned readily by the use of boiling water or 
steam. 

As a labor-saver the device enables one man to do four men's 
work. One man can operate three or four milkers at once, each milk- 
ing two cows at the same time, which means that he can milk thirty 
to forty cows an hour. With hand-milking this number of cows 
would require the work of four men for one hour. 

Moreover, the results are much more uniform, and daily variations 
in milk-yield, depending on the personality of the milker, are 
eliminated. 

The difficulties in keeping milkers and the disastrous results from 
frequent change of milkers are also removed by the machine. 

Cost. — The expensive parts of the milking machine are the 
milkers and the vacuum pump, each of these costing $75 apiece. This 
pump is capable of operating five milkers. The entire cost of the 
installation, power and milking machines is estimated by the sellers 



MILKING MACHINES 



191 



to amount to about $12.00 per cow for a herd of forty cows, and $8.50 
per cow for a herd of seventy-five.* 

With accumulating experience, the results obtained by the use of 
the Burrell-Lawrence- Kennedy milking machine appear to be gener- 
ally favorable. 

The more common doubts as to the amenability of cows to the 
milking machine, and the danger of drying up cows from incomplete 
emptying of the udder, have been dispelled. Cows hitherto unruly to 
hand milking, and heifers never milked before, have taken most 
kindly to the machine, and, on the whole, cows like machine milking 
better than hand milking. 

Hand stripping — after the removal of the teat cups — is done, 
generally, into the teat cups themselves. Cows which are milked by 
the machine have a longer period of lactation than when milked by 
hand. 

What appeared a serious objection to the milking machine was 
the complaint that the milk of single cows could not be separated from 
that of the herd — in case it was contaminated with blood or pus and 
germs from an inflamed udder ; or the milk was needed for feeding a 
calf ; or for making a periodical test for quantity and fat. Gurler 
has obviated this defect by having the pail of one machine divided 
into two compartments, one for each cow, and provided with corres- 
ponding outlets from which the milk from each cow can be drawn. 
Garget, and all troubles with the udder, are less frequent with the 
milking machine — probably because the teats are not so subject to 
abrasions and infection from other cows by the hands of the milker. 

Mr. H. B. Gurler, of Illinois, one of the most noted dairymen of 
this countrj^ — writing in Hoard's Dairyman — says that in thirty com- 
parative tests between hand and machine milking, the number of 
bacteria was reduced one-half by the machine — from 5,000 to 2,500 
per c.c. After fourteen months' use of the Burrell-Lawrence-Kennedy 
machine with two hundred cows he found but two or three cows 
which could not be milked by it ; he gives it his unqualified approba- 
tion and afiirms that it has come to stay. 



* For details consult D. H. Burrell & Co., Little Falls, N. Y., and Brock- 
ville, Ont. 



I02 . CLEAN MILK 

Gurler states tliat one man with the machine is equal to three 
hand milkers ; that no difficulty was experienced in keeping the appara- 
tus clean b}^ the use of rinsing in cold water, a solution of lye, and 
boiling water ; and that great care should be taken in accurately 
fitting each teat cup to each individual teat. He warns against com- 
pletely filling the milk pails, lest milk be drawn into the vacuum 
pipes, and emphasizes the necessity of a uniform vacuum. If a teat 
cup pulls off or any accident occurs which reduces the vacuum, the 
machines should be shut off till the proper vacuum is secured. 
And when one of a pair of cows attached to a machine' is milked 
before the other, the vacuum should be shut off from that cow, at 
the machine, and the machine kept running until the other cow is 
milked. 

The Hegelund Method. — Extensive experiments with this method 
of manipulating the udder at the close of milking have been conducted 
by Woll at the University of Wisconsin Agricultural Station,* on one 
hundred and fifty cows during a summer and fall, and have proved its 
advantages to be as follows : 

A daily gain of one pound of milk, and one-tenth pound of fat 
per cow was obtained. This is equivalent to a gain of about thirty- 
five pounds of butter per cow per annum. 

Most cows do not object to the manipulation ; less than a dozen 
out of the number tested did so. 

The gain in quantity of milk and fat is not a temporary increase ; 
not only is the gain persistent, but the method tends to maintain a 
large flow of milk during the lactation period. 

The method taking the place of stripping, there is no loss of time 
in performing it. 

The use of the method develops the milk-yield of heifers, and has 
even doubled that of cows which have been supposed to have reached 
their maximum flow of milk. It increases the fat in the milk so that 
the yield from this method contains ten per cent, of fat. It is of great 
value in preventing mastitis during the early period of lactation. 



* Univ. Wis. Agric. Sta. Bull, No. 96. 



PtATE XY. (Illustrating the Hegeluiid method of mllkiug.) 





Fig, I. — First nianipnlation of udder, 
right quarters. 



Fig. 2. — First manipulatioH, left quarters. 



PW. 




G. 3. — Secoud nuuiipukition, right fore quarter. 




Fig 4. — Second nianipulatiou, 
right bind quarter. 





Fig. 5. — Second nianipiilation, 
right hind quarter, rear view. 



Fig. 6. — Third manipulation. 



MILKING MACHINES 193 

As the method has been adopted by some of the most progressive 
farmers in Denmark, and this country it is well worthy of trial and is 
herewith described. 



DESCRIPTION op THE MANIPULATIONS IN THE HEGELUND METHOD 

OP MILKING. 

First Manipulation.-^ The. right quarters of the udder are pressed 
against each other (if the udder is very large, only one-quarter at a 
time is taken) with the left hand on the hind quarter and the right 
hand in front on the fore quarter, the thumbs being placed on the out- 
side of the udder and the four fingers in the division between the two 
halves of the udder. The hands are now pressed toward each other 
and at the same time lifted toward the body of the cow. This press- 
ing and lifting is repeated three times, the milk collected in the milk 
cistern is then milked out, and the manipulation repeated until no 
more milk is obtained in this way, when the left quarters are treated 
in the same manner. (See Plate XV, Figs, i and 2.) 

Second Manipidatiofi. — The glands are pressed together from the 
side. The fore quarters are milked each by itself by placing one hand, 
with fingers spread, on the outside of the quarter and the other hand 
in the division between the right and left fore quarters : the hands 
are pressed against each other and the teat then milked. When no 
more milk is obtained by this manipulation, the hind quarters are 
milked by placing a hand on the outside of each quarter, likewise with 
fingers spread and turned upward, but with the thumb just in front 
of the hind quarter. The hands are lifted and grasp into the gland 
from behind and from the side, after which they are lowered to draw 
the milk. The manipulation is repeated until no more milk is obtained. 
(See Plate XV, Figs. 3-5.) 

Third Manipulation. — The fore teats are grasped with partly closed 
hands and lifted with a push toward the body of the cow, both at the 
same time, by which method the glands are pressed between the hands 
and the body ; the milk is drawn after each three pushes. When the 
fore teats are emptied, the hind teats are milked XU the same manner, 
(See Plate XV, Fig. 6.) 



194 



CLEAN MILK 



Standardizing Milk 

It may be desirable to produce a milk standardized to contain a 
fixed and constant percentage of fat. This is particularly important 
for infant feeding. Or one may wish to supply a milk of unusual and 
definite richness ; or again one may want to combine two lots of cream 
of different fat percentages to obtain a cream of definite percentage. 

A very simple method of determining what amount of any given 
two lots of milk or cream, varying in richness, is required for combina- 
tion to obtain a milk or cream of definite fat percentage is given 
below. This method of standardizing milk was devised by Prof. 
R. A. Pearson, of Cornell University. 

One should construct a figure like the accompanying cut, and in the 




two left hand corners write the percentages of fat in the two lots of 
milk (or cream and milk, or two lots of cream, as the case may be). 

In the centre, place the percentage of fat required. At the right 
hand corners write numbers which will be the differences between two 
numbers with which they stand in line. 

Thus: If 4.7 and 3.4 are the percentages of fat in two lots of 
milk — and it is desired to make a mixture containing four per cent, of 
fat — subtract 4 from 4.7 and place the result (.7) at the lower right, 
hand corner. Subtract 3.4 from 4 and place the result (.6) at the 
upper right hand corner. 

The result shows that it will take six parts of 4.7 per cent, milk, 
and seven parts gf 3.4 per cent, milk, to make a standard four per 
cent, milk. 



STABLE VENTILATION 195 

A New Method of Stable Ventilation. 

Quite recently there has come into existence a new system of 
ventilating barns by means of windows covered with cheap cotton 
cloth. No method could be simpler or less expensive abd the results 
thus far reported have been very favorable. 

Thus Ellis M. Santee, of the Dairy Department of Washington, 
D. C, writing in Hoard's Dairyman of May 17th, 1907, records some 
conclusions from exhaustive experiments with cloth ventilation as 
compared with the King system. He affirms that even with the 
thermometer registering 43 degrees below (zero, presumably), water 
never froze in the barn with cloth-covered windows. Also that the 
difference in temperature in barns with cloth-covered windows and in 
those with all glass windows was but i to 3 degrees. Moreover, in the 
stables ventilated with cloth-covered windows, the humidity was 7 to 
10 per cent, lower than in the barns ventilated by the King system. 
Finally he records the fact that many good dairymen have closed the 
outlets and inlets of their King system to give place to the cloth 
curtahi method. Glass windows should be alternated with cloth- 
covered openings, the proportion being 3 sq. ft. of glass and 2 sq. ft. 
of cloth-covered openings for each 1,000 lbs. of animal. The cloth 
should be muslin of the first grade better than cheesecloth, costing 5 
to 6 cents par yard. 

Method of Keeping Accounts of the Pure 
Milk Dairy 

{^Sce the following three for vis.') 

I 

MAPLEWOOD FARM 
Daily Milk Report 

1907 

Empty cases received last train 

Bottles short last train . . . 
Bottles broken wlieu received 
Bottles broken at farm . . . 
Cases milk shipped to-day. . , , , and Qts. 



196 



CLEAN. MILK 



Explanation. — The foregoing report is signed by the manager at 
the farm. It shows the number of empty cases (holding 12 quart 
bottles) received from the city and the number of bottles broken and 
missing in them. Also the number of full cases shipped to the city. 



II 



Driver. . . . 
Route No. 



MILK RECEIVED 


CASH ACCOUNT 


Received from Ry 

Milk Cream 

Quarts Gals. Pints M Pints 


Paid ox Account 

« 






Delivered 






Milk 








Cream 




\i Pints 


Paid for Tickets 

$ 


Returned 




Milk 




Quarts 




Cream 




Pints 




1^ Pints 




' * 






Bottles Delivered 


Cash Receipts. .% 

Total |.... 




Bottles Returned 


f f ♦ 



This blank is filled out daily by the driver of each delivery wagon . 

and represents, first, the amount of milk and cream received from 

railway; second, the amount of milk and cream delivered to customers ; 
third, the amount of the same brought back to the store ; fourth, the 
bottles delivered to and returned by customers ; and fifth, the casU 
paid for accounts due or tickets, 



METHOD OF KEEPING ACCOUNTS 
III. 



^97 



fS 1 


;2 


1 


n 


•a 
I 


t 
s 


s 


& 


R 


R 


R 


R 


ft 


;S 


A 


,S 


n , 


H 


R 


S 


£ 


X '■ 


p» 


:S 


a 


s 


m 


C 


C 


o 


©• 


te 


(> 


£ 


ifi 


«> 


m 


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- 


1 ii III ill tin 



This form represents a loose card, one of which is devoted to each 
customer for a year. The day's sales of the drivers of the milk 
wagons are copied off their books each day and kept in the ofi&ce of 
the city dairy in this form, 



198 CLEAN MILK 

A General Outline of a Scheme for the Control, 

Supervision and Inspection of a 

City Milk Supply 

The legal control of a city milk supply is in the hands of the 
City Board of Health. The State Board of Health should, however, 
work in cooperation with the City Board through its jurisdiction over 
the territory from which the milk is obtained. When the milk is 
drawn from several states this is, of course, of but slight value. 
Moreover, state supervision is not essential, since the city authorities 
can enforce sufficient influence over the producer of unsanitary milk 
in the following ways : By condemning such when it arrives in the 
city ; by warning or fines ; by revoking the license of the dealer in 
the same in the city ; and by requiring that the premises on which the 
milk is produced be inspected before the milk can be sold in the city. 

Supervision of a milk supply must begin at the barn and be 
continued until the milk reaches the consumer. Thus milk must be 
inspected at the following points : 

1. At the farm. 

2. During transportation from the farm to the R.R. or creamery. 

3. At the creamery, when this is the shipping point. 

4. On the cars during transportation to the city. 

5. At the city R.R. or receiving station. 

6. On the wagon in the city. 

7. At the city dairy, hotel, restaurant, retail store and home of 
the consumer. 

The country furnishing milk must be mapped, the farms and 
creameries from which milk is shipped must be plotted, and the 
territory divided into districts, each under the supervision of an 
inspector living in the region. It has been recommended that there 
be one inspector to each 100 farms. At present New York City has 
about 100 inspectors (1907) to supervise some thirty to forty thousand 
farms in six states and shipping milk into the city from points four 
hundred miles distant. No milk should be permitted to enter a city 
until the seal of inspection has been first placed upon it by an 
inspector in the country. 



GENERAL OUTLINE 199 

When milk is shipped from creameries or country receiving 
stations these form convenient points for inspection and also serve as 
a base for investigation of the farms supplying the creameries. At 
the creameries the following demand looking into : (i) The cleaning 
and sterilization of all utensils ; (2) the water supply and drainage ; 
(3) the temperature at which milk and cream are kept ; (4) general 
cleanliness, requiring the absence of flies and dust. 

The farms need inspection in regard to the ensuing matters : 
Cleanliness of the cows, milkers and other employees ; of the barn, 
milk house, utensils and surroundings ; the health of the employees 
and cows, with especial attention to infectious diseases in the former, 
and to tuberculosis and udder disease (garget) in the latter ; the kind 
of food given to cows (avoidance of swill, fermented brewers' grains 
and distillery slops, etc.) and time of feeding ; the purity of water 
and ice supply, ventilation of barns, removal of manure, drainage of 
premises, and methods of milking and handling and cooling milk. 
Also the method of storing and caring for milk and hauling it to the 
R.R. or creamery ; and the care of the milk room, especially with 
regard to the absence of dust and flies. 

Inspections of creameries and farms should be made once a month 
at least, and reports should be rendered in quadruplicate, one of which 
should be sent to the city ofiice, one to the farmer, one to the retail 
dealer selling the milk, and one to be retained on file in the local 
office in the country. This suggestion was made by Dr. Goler, of 
Rochester, N. Y., who also recommends, in case the territory supply- 
ing a city is 'large, the establishment of one or more laboratories in 
the country as sub-stations for the work of milk inspection. This 
might be conveniently carried out in connection with creameries. 

Country inspectors should not only perform their police duties, 
but should act as teachers and should talk and distribute printed 
matter concerning everything which relates to the production and 
care of sanitary milk. 

The plan adopted by the Massachusetts Board of Health, in 
publishing a monthly list of well conducted and cleanly farms, is to be 
commended. Goler urges the establishment of model dairy farms by 
the State in connection with the laboratory substations in the country, 



200 CLEAN MILK 

the scheme comprising the remodeling of some old and run-down 
farm, so that in its upbuilding the farmer could apply the same 
measures to his own premises. 

In regard to the carriage of milk on the railroad, railways 
carrying milk to the large cities of the country now supply refrigerator 
cars for milk, with adequate icing facilities to cool milk below 50° F., 
in most cases. When such refrigerating arrangements are not obtain- 
able, milk and cream should be shipped as advised on p. 87. 

Inspection on the cars is limited to taking the temperature of 
milk. At the receiving station in the city there must be daily 
inspection with reference to the temperature of milk, to the care 
of cans and bottles of milk while en route, and to the condition of 
empty bottles and cans which are being returned. The inspector shall 
here examine milk by sight, smell and taste, and by lactometer and 
lactoscope (if such be the custom), and take samples for laboratory 
examination. According to the writer's views, the only accurate 
testing which should be done by the collectors of samples is that 
of temperature taking. Testing for the solids and fat and for adul- 
teration and bacterial content can be done much more accurately 
at the laboratory. 

During distribution of milk by wagon in the city, inspection is 
desirable to ascertain that the milk is properly iced in warm weather, 
that the temperature of the milk is kept below 50° F. , that bottling of 
milk is not done on the wagon, and that general cleanliness of utensils 
and wagon is observed. Samples of milk should be taken from each 
wagon at least once a month for laboratory examination. 

A sample of milk should be taken from each retail store every 
month. Milk in the various stages of transportation from cow to 
consumer becomes more germ-laden through age and handling, espe- 
cially when poured from one utensil to another, and the case of 
the retail shop is the worst. This has been strikingly shown by 
Prof. J. O. Jordan, of Boston. The legal limit for bacterial content 
in Boston is 500,000 germs to the c.c. The milk during 1906, in 
respect to this standard, was found to be distributed as follows : 
On the cars, on arrival, 90 per cent, under germ standard {i.e., con- 
taining not less than 500,000 bacteria) ; on the wagons, 50 per cent. 



GENERAL OUTLINE 201 

under germ standard ; in the retail stores, 18 per cent, below germ 
standard. Such a difference between the quality of milk on arrival 
and subsequently does not occur in milk bottled at the farm, cooled 
immediately below 50° F. and kept at that point all the time until it 
reaches the store customer. Only bottled milk should be sold in 
stores, and the bottling should be done at the farm or, less favorably, 
at the creamery or city dairy. Inspection at stores must enforce 
requirements for a proper refrigerator and cooling of the milk, and 
also that the store be apart from dwelling rooms. 

In the inspection of city dairies, stores, hotels and restaurants, 
the proper cleaning of empty cans and bottles should receive special 
attention. In many cities an ordinance requires that milk cans and 
bottles must be thoroughly cleaned or sterilized before their return to 
the farm or creamery. Also an ordinance should forbid using utensils 
employed for transporting milk and cream as receptacles for any other 
material whatsoever. Jordan notes that broken eggs, coffee, oil, 
chocolate, molasses, blood, and, above all, kerosene, are not infre- 
quently discovered in milk cans. 

At each city dairy the cleanliness of premises and milk utensils, 
the purity of the water supply, and the facilities and method of 
cooling milk and cream should be the subjects of inspection. Samples 
of milk should be taken from the city dairy at least once monthly. 

Inspection of milk at hotels and restaurants should be directed 
toward enforcing the ordinances as regards temperature of milk, 
cleanliness of utensils and the sale of skim milk. Samples should be 
taken once a month from hotels and restaurants. 

The proper care of milk affer it has reached the consumer is 
the most difficult matter of control and can only be managed by 
general education of the public. The Board of Health, through its 
monthly bulletins, and those selling clean milk may supply the public 
with information on the subject, and consumers should be fined for 
not returning empty milk bottles or cans properly cleaned. 

Jordan points out another objection to the popular desire for 
the early arrival of milk we have noticed (p. 125): that milk left 
on the doorstep in the early morning hours of summer may be heated 
by the sun to an injurious degree. At this place it may not be out of 



26^ CLEAN MILK 

order to note that the forms fiirnished by the City Board of Health to 
physicians for compulsory reports of infectious diseases should require 
the name of the milkman supplying each infectious case reported. 
In Boston the wholesale milk dealers are exceptionally progressive. 
They assist the health authorities by taking the temperature of milk 
consigned to them, by straining milk to discover dirt, by cleaning 
empty cans; while six dealers (1907) have actually installed bac- 
teriological laboratories for their own use (Jordan). 

A sufficient number of inspectors or collectors of samples in cities 
may require one to each 50,000 of population. In addition to the 
duties described above, the city inspector should examine the premises 
of applicants for a city license to sell milk, before one may be issued. 

The City Board of Health should publish in a monthly report the 
names of each dairyman, dividing them into four categories : those 
selling Certified, Inspected, Ordinary Market and Pasteurized milk ; 
and should report the number of bacteria in each. Also notice of any 
dairyman who has been found guilty of infractions of any of the 
ordinances pertaining to milk should be thus publicly announced. 

A. D. Melvin, Chief of the Bureau of Animal Industry, suggests 
that the following division be made of the milk composing a city 
supply: I. Certified milk. 2. Inspected milk from tuberculin-tested 
cows housed, fed and milked under good conditions with a maximum 
content of 100,000 germs per c.c. the year round, and shipped in 
sterilized containers at the farm at a temperature below 50° F. 3. All 
other milk should be pasteurized (as soon as practicable after milking 
at 154° F. for twenty minutes), cooled immediately and sold in 
sterilized containers at a temperature below 50° F. 



INDEX 



Pago 

Acidity of milk, test for 138 

of pasteurized milk 138 

Air space in barn 58 

Analysis, quantitative, of bacteria 

149, 161 

Anthrax affecting milk 20 

Albumin of milk 24 

Ayrshire cows 169 

Babcock test for fat in milk. . .141, 146 
Bacteria, see Germs. 

analysis of milk for 149, 161 

Balanced rations, selection of. . . . 49 

specimens of 51 

Barn dust 66 

floors 58 

plans of 178-187 

ventilation of 59, 195 

Barns 57 

Beasiings 30 

Bedding 67 

Bitter milk 18 

Blue milk T 18 

Bookkeeping, city milk route 195 

Borax in mil k 136 

Boric acid in milk 136 

Bottle boxes 127 

brushes 93 

filler 89 

washer 95 

Bottled milk, cooling 84 

Bottles, milk 104, 105 

to prevent loss of. 1 29 

Bottling milk 96 

utensils for 87 

Brown milk 18 

Brushes for cleaning milk uten- 
sils 87, 94 

Burrell - Lawrence milking ma- 
chine 189 



Page 

Butter, action of germs on 2 

composition of 43, 118 

fat, how to pay creamery pa- 
trons for 120 

flavor 37 

from fresh cream 38, 41 

skim milk 43 

making, losses in 1 19-122 

making, overrun in 119 

milk, composition of 43 

Budde's process of sterilizing milk 188 
Bye-products of milk 44 

Caps for milk bottles 130 

Carriers for milk bottles 102 

Cars for milk 103 

Certified milk, circular describing 131 

cost of 114 

how to begin sa'e of. 117 

price of 116 

New York requirements i6r 

standard and origin of 16 

Cheese, action of germs on 2 

composition of 43 

hard 41 

making 41 

ripening 41 

soft 41 

Cholera, infecting milk 21 

Cleaning cows ,. . 70 

utensils 85 

Cloth ventilation of barns 195 

Clothing for milk room 98 

Colostrum 30, 135 

as source of disease 31 

Commercial starters, Harrington's 39 

Composite samples of milk 177 

Composition of butter 43 

butttermilk 26 

cheese .... ?4 



204 



INDEX 



Page 

Conposition of colostrum 31 

cream 36 

milk 23, 26 

affected by excitement. . . 29 

exposure 29 

food 29 

fright 29 

milking 29 

period of heat 29 

period of lactation. . . 29 

surroundings 29 

season 29 

treatment 29 

skim milk 26,36 

whey 43 

Concentrates 51 

Condensed milk, action of germs 

on 2 

Coolers, milk 71-83 

Star 80 

tubular 80 

Cooling bottled milk 84 

of milk 77 

Cost of certified milk 114 

Cow, annual cost of 113 

Ayrshire 169 

care of 69 

census no, in 

for milk 169 

dairy, characteristics of 169 

dehorning 174 

grooming 70 

Guernsey 169 

Holstein 169 

Jersey 169 

number of in barn 59 

pox, affecting milk 20 

profits no 

rations 174 

records 173 

how to keep 176 

returns from no 

standard for 112 

stall 177 

value of 177 

Cream, acidity of for butter 139 

bottling 108 

conditions favoring rising. ... 33 

dipper for removing 132 

set, germs in — 37 



Page 

Cream per cent, of solids in 36 

ripening of 37 

separation of 107 

starters 39 

thickeners 108, 140 

whipping 109 

Culture media for bacteriological 

analysis 149 

Curdling of milk 25 

Dairy, arrangement of. 99-102 

cows , . . 169 

routine 96 

utensils, washing of 98 

Dehorning cows 174 

Diarrhea of infants from milk. ... 22 

Diphtheria infecting milk 21 

Drivers' uniform 131 

Dust in barn 66 

milk room 76 

Dysentery infecting milk 21 

Ensilage affecting milk 54 

Farrington's acidity test 158 

Farrington on starters 39 

Fat of milk 25 

Fat in milk and cream, test for, 141-146 

Feeding, balanced ration for 49 

concentrates 51 

Haecker's rules for 50 

for milk 46 

of silage 54 

in relation to milking 54 

roughage 51 

specimen ration for 51 

Fishy milk 85, 135 

Flies in barn 66 

spray for on cows 66 

Food, influence on lactation period 47 

imparting flavor to milk 56 

imparting taste to milk 54 

Foot and mouth disease affecting 

milk 20 

Formaldehyde in milk 136 

Freezine 10 

Gelatine in milk. 141 

Garget affecting milk 20 

Germs, acids and alkalies affecting 6 



INDEX 



205 



Page 

Germs, action on butter, cream, 

cheese, milk, condensed milk. . 2 

action of temperature on 6 

causing flavor of butter 38 

characters of 3 

conditions of growth 5, 17-18 

in barn 67 

in filtered milk ? 35 

in cheese ripening, 42 

in market milk 17 

in separated cream 35 

influence on milk and products 12 

lactic acid 13 

action on man 13 

flavoring butter & theese 13 

miscellaneous 15 

flavoring butter 38 

moisture affecting growth of. 6 

multiplication of, 4 

number present in clean milk 1 1 

of butyric acid 18 

of disease in milk 15 

of tuberculosis in milk iq 

putrefactive 15 

significance of, in milk 11 

numbersinmilk 15 

quantity and variety in 

milk 15 

sunlight affecting 6 

standard for water supply 53 

temperature affecting growth 5 

test for 149-161 

Green milk 18 

Grooming cows 70 

Guernsey cows 169 

Gutters for manure 59 

Haecker's rules for feeding 50 

Heating water 95 

for dairy 85 

Hegelund method of stripping 

cows 192 

Holsteiu cows 169 

Iceline 10 

Infant mortality 22 

Inspected milk, New York require- 
ments 165 

Inspection of milk 134 

Jersey cows 169 



Page 

Keeping qualities of milk 14 

King system, ventilation 59 

Lactation period of cows 29 

increased by feeding 47 

Lactic acid germs 13 

action on man 13 

in fermentation of milk 24 

flavoring butter and cheese, 13, 38 

killing other germs 13 

Lactometer 146 

Machine, milking 189 

Manure, removal of from barn . . 66 

trench 59 

Market milk, germs in 17 

Miscellaneous germs 15 

Modified milk, for infants 137 

Milk acidity, test for 137 

action of temperature on 14 

adulterated with borax 136 

adulteration, boric acid 136 

formaldehyde, orfreezine 136 

salicylic acid 137 

sodium carbonate 137 

as a source of infant mortality 22 

as a source of diarrhea 22 

as a source of cholera infantum 22 

bacteria, analysis of 149-161 

bad odor of 135 

bad taste of ., 135 

bitter 18 

blue 18 

bookkeeping for city route. . . 195 

bottle 104 

caps 130 

carriers 102 

cars 103 

shipping cases 103 

to prevent loss of 129 

bottling of 96 

utensils for 87 

boxes, for bottles 127 

brown 18 

bye products in manufactures 44 

certified 16 

certified, cost of. 114 

N. Y. requirements for . . 161 

price of 116 

composite samples of 177 



2o6 



INDEX 



Page 

Milk, composition ol 23 

coolers 78 

cooling of. 77 

condensed, action of germs on 2 

curdling of 25 

dirt m 135 

dirty, a source o ftyrotoxicon 22 

during tuberculin test 56 

fat 25 

test for 141-146 

feeding affecting composition 

of. 46 

feeding for 46 

fever, afifecting milk 20 

treatment of. 69 

fishy 53, 85, 135 

from silage 54 

formation in udder 46 

green 18 

hints in delivery 129 

house, arrangements of 99 

plans of 17S-187 

in anthrax 20 

in cow pox 20 

foot and mouth disease. . 20 

garget 20 

milk fever 20 

pleuropneumonia 20 

inspected, N. Y. requirements 165 

inspection 134 

keeping qualities of. 14 

modified for infants 131 

pails 73-74 

pasteurized 7-10, 187 

preservatives 10 

tests for 136, 137 

proteids 24 

pus in, test for 160 

records 112, 176 

red 18 

returns from selling in various 

forms 123 

room 75 

utensils for 76 

samples 135, 136 

siphon for removing from 

bottle 132 

skim, food value of 43 

test for 141 

slimy 18 



Page 

Milk soapy 18 

solids, estimation of. 146 

souring of 24 

standard for cow 112 

standardizing 194 

sterilizing, Budde's process. . 188 

sterilizers for utensils 89 

stirrer 97 

strainer 84 

stringy 18, 135 

strippings 27 

sugar 24 

sweet 10 

time of delivery 126 

utensils, washing 93 

wagons 127 

watered, test for 141 

yellow 18 

Milkers, cleanliness of 71 

Milking 71 

as affecting composition of 

milk 2S 

in relation to feeding 54 

machine 189 

Overrun 118 

how to estimate 119 

Pails, milk 73-74 

Paper milk bottle 105 

Pasteurized milk 7-10, 187 

acidity of 138 

test for 137 

Plans of barns 178-187 

Pleuropneumonia affecting milk. . 20 

Preservatives 10 

tests for 136 

Price of certified milk 116 

Proteids in milk 24 

Putrefactive germs 15 

Records of cows 176 

of milk .112, 176 

Red milk 18 

Room, milk. 75 

Roughage 15 

Salicylic acid 137 

Scarlet fever infecting milk 21 

Separation of cream , 107 



INDEX 



207 



Page 
Separation, removing germs 35 

removing dirt 35 

Separator cream 34 

slime 34 

Separators, management of 175 

Shipping cases 103-104 

Skim milk, food value of 43 

test for 141 

value of J 24 

Slimy milk 18 

Smallpox infecting milk 21 

Soapy milk 18 

Sodium carbonate in milk 137 

Solids in milk 146 

Souring of milk 24 

Stalls 65,58 

Stanchions 65 

Standardizing milk 194 

Star cooler 80 

Startolene 40 

Starters, natural and commercial. 39 

Sterilizers 89 

Straining , 84 

Stringy milk 135, 18 

Stripping cows, Hegelund method 192 

Strippings of milk 27 

Sugar of milk 24 

Temperature affecting milk 14 

Test, acidity of milk 137 

for gelatine 141 



Page 
Test for preservatives in milk . . .136-7 

for pus in milk 160 

for viscogen in milk 140 

Tie-ups 65 

Tuberculin test 20, 56, 69 

Tuberculosis, germs of in milk . . 19 

Tubular coolers 80 

Typhoid fever infecting milk 2 [ 

Tyrotoxicon in milk 22 

Utensils, cleaning 85 

in milk room 76 

Ventilation of barns 59, 195 

King system of 59 

Viscogen in milk 108, 140 

Wagons, milk 271 

Washing dairy utensils 98 

milk utensils 93 

sink 94 

Water, germ standard for 53 

for dairy use 21 

heating 85, 95 

Watered milk, test for 141 

Water supply 53 

Water, stagnant, in pastures. ... 53 

Whey, composition of 43 

Whipping cream 109 

Yellow milk 18 



CATALOGUE OF 

William R. Jenkins Co/s 

Works Concerning 

HORSES, CATTLE, SHEEP, SWIHE, Etc. 

1908 



(*) Designates Neio Books. 

(I) Designates Recent Publications . 



ANDERSON, "Vice in the Horse" and other papers 
on Horses and Riding. By E. L. Anderson. 8ize, 
6x9, cloth, illustrated '. 1 75 

ARMSTEAD. "The Artistic Anatomy of the Horse." 

A brief description of the various Anatonjical Struc- 
tures which may be distinguished during Life through 
the Skin. By Hugh W. Armstead, M.D., F.E.C.S. 
With illustrations from drawings by the author. 
Cloth oblong, 10 x 12^ 3 75 

BACH. " How to Judge a Horse." A concise treatise 
as to its Qualities and Soundness ; Including Bits and 
Bitting, Saddles and Saddling, Stable Drainage, Driv- 
ing One Horse, a Pair, Four-in-hand, or Tandem, etc. 
By Capt. F.W.Bach. Size, 5 x7i, clo., fully illus.l 00 

BANHAm. "Tables of Veterinary Posology and Thera- 
peutics," with weights, measures, etc. By Geo. A. 
Banham, F. R. C. V. S. New edition. Cloth, size 
4x5 1-2, 192 pages 1 00 

BAUCHER. "Method of Horsemanship." Including 
the Breaking and Training of Horses. By 
F. Baucher 1 00 

BELL. (*)"The Veterinarian's CaU Book (Perpetual)." 

By Roseoe R. Bell, D.V.S., editor of the American 
Veterinary Review. Completely revised 1907. 

A visiting list, that can be commenced at any time 
and used until full, c(>ntaining much usefulinforma- 
tion for the student and the busy practitioner. 
Among contents are items concerning : Prescription 
writing; Veterinary Drugs; Poisons; Solubility of 
Drugs; Composition of Milk, Bile, Blood, Gastric 
Juice, Urine, Saliva; Respiration; Dentition; Temp- 
erature, etc., etc. Bound in flexible leather, with 
flap and pocket , 1 26 



BITTING. *' Cadlol's Exercises in Equine Surgery." 

See "Cadiot." 

BRADLEY. " Outlines of Veterinary Anatomy." 

By O.Charnock Bradley, Member of the Koyal Col- 
lege of Veterinary Surgeons ; Professor of Anatomy 
in the New Veterinary College, Edinburgh. 

The author presents the most important facts of 
veterinary anatomy in as condensed a form as possible, 
consistent with lucidity. 12mo. 

Complete in three parts. 

Pakt I. : The Limbs (cloth) 1 25 

Pakt II. : The Trunk (paper) 1 25 

Part III. : The Head and Neck (paper) 1 25 

The Set compijEte 3 25 

CADIOT. " Exercises in Equine Surgrery." By P. J. 

Cadiot. Translated by Prof. A. W. Bitting, D.V.M. 
Edited by Prof. A . Liautard, M.D. V.M. Size, 6 x ^%. 
cloth, illustrated 2 50 

— "Roaring in Horses." Its Pathology and Treatment. 

This work represents the latest development in oper- 
ative methods for the alleviation of roaring. Each 
step is most clearly defined by excellent full-page 
illustrations. By P. J. Cadiot, Professor at the 
Veterinary School, Alfort. Translated by Thos. J. 
Watt Dollar, M.R.C.V.S., etc. Cloth, size 5 1-4 x 7 1-8, 
77 pages, illustrated 75 

— "Studies in Clinical Veterinary Medicine and Surgery." 

By P. J. Cadiot. Translated, edited, and supplemented 
with 49 new articles and 34 illustrations by Jno. A. W. 
Dollar, M.R.C.V.S. Cloth, size 7x9 3-4, 619 pages, 
94 black and white illustrations 5 25 

—(•)" A Treatise on Surgical Therapeutics of the Domestic 

Animals." By F. J. Cadiot and J. Almy. Translated 
by Prof. A. Liautard, M.D. , V.M. 

I. General Surgery. — Means of restraint of animals, 
general anaesthesia, local ansethesia, surgical anti- 
sepsis and asepsis, hematosis, cauterization, firing, 

II. Diseases Common to all Tissues. — Inflammation, 
abscess, gangrene, ulcers, fistula, foreign bodies, 
traumatic lesions, complications of traumatic les- 
ions, granulations, cicatrices, mycosis, virulent 
dispases, tumors. 

III. Diseases Special to all Tissues and Affections of 
the Extremities. — Diseases of skin and cellular tis- 
sue, of serous bursae, of muscles, of tendons, of 
tendinous svnovial sacs, of aponeurosis, of arteries, 
of veins, of lymphatics, of nerves, of bones, of 
articulations. 

Cloth, size 6x9, 580 pages, 118 illustrations 4 50 

CHAPMAN. "Manual of the Pathological Treatment 

of I>amenes8 in the Horse," treated solely by 
mechanical means. By George T. Chapman. Cloth, 
size G X 9, 124 pages with portrait 2 00 



CLARKE. "Chart of the Feet and Teeth of Fossil 
Horses." Hy W. H. Clarke. Card, size 9 1-2 x 13. . ^5 

—"Horses' Teetli." FourLli edition, re-revised, with second 
appendix. Cloth, size 5 1-4 x 7 1-2, 322 pp., illus..2 50 

CLEAFELAND. " Proiiounciiig' Medical Lexicon," 

F<)ck^-t edition. By C H. Cleveland, M.D. Cloth, 
size 3 1-4x4 1-2, 3U2 pages 76 

CLEMENT. " Veterinary Post Mortem Examina- 
tions." By A. W. Clement, V.S. The absence in the 
English language of any guide in making autopsies 
upon the lower animals, induced Dr. Clement to 
write this book, trusting that ii would prove of prac- 
tical value to th« profebtion. Cloth, size 5x7 1-2, 64 
pages, illustrated 75 

CO URTENA r. f f ) " Manual of the Practice of Veterinary 
Medicine." Hy Edward Courtenay, V.8. Kevised by 
Fi-ederick T. G. Hobday, F.R.C.V'.S. Second edition. 
Cloth, size 5 1-4x7 1-2, 573 pages 2 75 

COX. " Horses : In Accident and Disease." The 

sketches introduced embrace various attitudes which 
have been observed, such as in choking ; the disorders 
and accidents occurring to the stomach and intestines ; 
afTection of the brain ; and some special forms of lame- 
ness, etc. By J. Roalfe Cox, F.R.C.V.S. Cloth, size 
6 x 9, 28 full page Illustrations 1 50 

DALRY3IPLE. (*)"Veteri nary Obstetrics." A compen- 
dium for the use of advanced students and Practi- 
tioners. By W, H. Dalrymple, M. K. C. V. S., 
principal of the Department of Veterinary Science in 
the Louisiana State University and A. & M. College; 
Veterinarian to the Louisiana State Bureau of 
Agriculture, and Agricultural Experiment Stations. 
Second edition revised. Cloth, si-^.e 6x9 1-4,162 pages, 
51 illustrations 2 50 

DALZIEL. "Breaking and Training Dogrs." Part I, by 
Pathfinder. Part II, by Hugh Dalziel. Cloth, 
illustrated 2 50 

— " The Collie." By Hugh Dalziel. Paper, illustrated 50 

— "The Diseases of Dogs." Causes, symptoms and treatment. 

By Hugh Dalziel. Illustrated. Paper, 50c. Cloth, 1 fO 

— "Diseases of Horses." Paper 50 

— " The Fox Terrier." By Hugh Dalziel. Paper, 50; clo.l 00 

— "The Greyhound." Cloth, illus 1 00 

— " The St. Bernard." Cloth, illustrated , , , X 00 



DANA. "Tables in ComparatiTe Phygiology." By Prof. 
C. L. Dana, M.D. Cbart, 17 x 17 26 

DAKCE. " Veterinary Tablet." By A. A. Dance. Chart, 
17 X 24, mounted on linen, folded in a cloth case for 
the pocket, size 3 3-4 x 6 1-2. Sho^s at a glance the 
eynopsis of the diseases of horses, cattle and dogs; 
with their cause, symptoms and cure 75 

DE BRUIN. (*)" BoTine Obstetrics." By M. G. De Bruin 

Instructor of Obstetrics at the State Veterinary 
School in Utrecht. Translated by W. E. A. Wyman, 
formerly Professor of Veterinary Science at Clemson 
A. & M. College, and Veterinarian to the South 
Carolina Experiment Station. Cloth, size 6x9, 382 
pages, 77 illustrations 5 00 

Synopsis of the Essential Features of the Work 

1. Authorized translation. 

2. The only obstetrical work which is up to date. 

3. Written by Europe's leading authority on the subject. 

4. Written by a man who has practiced the art a lifetime. 

5. Written by a man who, on account of his eminence as 
bovine practitioner and teacher of obstetrics, was selected 
by Prof. Dr. FrOhner and Prof. Dr. Bayer (Berlin and 
Vienna), to discuss bovine obstetrics both practically and 
scientifically. 

6. The only work containing a thorough dififerential diag- 
nosis of arte and post partura diseases. 

7. The only work doing justice to modern obstetrical 
surgery and therapeutics. 

8. Written by a man whose practical suggestions revolu- 
tionized the teaching of veterinary obstetrics even in the 
great schools of Europe. 

9. The only work dealing fully with the now no longer 
obscure contagious and infectious diseases of calves. 

10. Absolutely original and no compilation. 

11. The only work dealing fully with the difficult problem 
of teaching obstetrics in the colleges. 

12. The only work where the practical part is not over- 
shadowed by theory. 

... A veterinarian, particularly if his location brings him in 
contact with obstetrical practice, who makes any pretence toward 
being scientific and in possession of modern knowledge upon this 
subject, will not be without this excellent work, as- it is really a very 
valuable treatise.— Pt'o/. Boscoe B. Bell, in the Americaji Vetennary 
Bevieiv. 

In translating into English Professor De Bruin's excellent text- 
book on Bovine Obstetrics, Dr. Wyman has laid British and American 
veterinary surgeons and students under a debt of gratitude. The 
works represents the happy medium between the booklets which are 
adapted for cramming purposes by the student, and the ponderous 
tomes which, although useful to the teacher, are not exactly suited to 
the requirements of the everyday practitioner . . . We can strongly 
recommend the work to veterinary students and practitioners.- T/ie 
Journal of Comparative Pathology and Therapeutics. 

DOLLAR. f." Diseases of Cattle, Sheep, Goats and 
Swine." By G. Moussu and Jno. A. W. Dollar, 
M.R.C V.S. "Size 6x9 1-2, 7*»5 pages, 329 illustrations 
in the text and 4 full page plates 8 75 

— (f)"A Hand-book of Horse-Sboeing," with introductory 
chapters on the anatomy and physiology of the 
horse's foot. By Jno. A. W. Dollar, M.RCV.S., 
with the collaboration of Albert Wheatley, F.R.C.V.S. 
Cloth, size 6x8 1-2, 433 pages, 406 illustrations . .4 75 



DOLLA.R (continued) 

— (t/'Operative Technique." Volume 1 of "The Practice of 

Veterinary Surgery." Cloth, size 6 3-4 x 10, 26i pages, 
272 illustrations 3 75 

— *' General Surgery." Volume 2 of " The Practice of Veter- 

inary Surgery." In preparation. 

— (t)" Regional Veterinary Surgery." Volume 3 of "The 

Practice of Veterinary Surgery." By Drs. Jno. A. 
W. Dollar and H. MoUer. Cloth, size 6 1-2 x 10 853 
and xvi pages, 315 illustrations 6 25 

— *'Caiiot's Clinical Veterinary Medicine and Surgery," 

See " Cadiot." 

— "Cadiot's Roaring in Horses." See " Cadiot." 

DUN. "Veterinary Medicines, their Actions and Uses." 

By Finlay Dun, V.S., late lecturer on Materia 
Medica and Dietetics at the Edinburgh Veterinary 
College, and Examiner in Chemistry to the Koyal 
College of Veterinary Surgeons. Edited by James 
Macqueen, F.R.C. V.S. Tenth revised English edition. 
Cloth, size 6x9 3 75 

FLEMING. "The Contagious Diseases of Animals." Their 
influence on the wealth and health of nations and how 
they are to be combated. Paper, size 6x7 1-2, 
30 pages 26 

— " Human and Animal Variolse." A Study in Comparative 

Pathology. Paper, size 5 1-2x8 1-2, 61 pages ... 25 

— "Parasites and Parasitic Diseases of the Domesticated 

Animals." By L. G. Neumann. Translated by 
Dr. Fleming. See " Neumann" 

— "Operative Veterinary Surgerjr," Vol. I, by Dr. Geo. 

Fleming, M.R.C.V.S. This valuable work, one of the 
most practical treatises yet issued on the subject in 
the English language, is devoted to the common opera- 
tions of Veterinary Surgery ; and the concise descrip- 
tions and directions of the text are illustrated with 
numerous wood nngravings. Cloth, size 6x9 1-4, 285 

and xviii pages, 343 illustrations 2 75 

(•)Vol. II, edited and passed through the press by 
W. Owen Williams, F.R.C. V.S. Cloth, size 6x9 1-4, 
430 and xxxvii pages, 344 illustrations 3 25 

— '* Roaring in Horses." By Dr. George Fleming, 

F.R C.V.S. Its history, nature, causes, prevention 
and treatment. Cloth, size 5 1-2x8 3-4, 160 pages, 21 
engravings, 1 colored plate 1 50 

— " Veterinary Obstetrics." Including the Accidents and Dis- 

eases incident to Pregnancy, Parturition, and the Early 
Age in Domesticated Animals. By Geo. Fleming, 
F.R.C.V.S. Cloth, size 6x8 3-4, 758 pages, illu8.6 25 



GOTTHIEL. (*)"A Manual of General Histology. 

By Win. S. Gottheil, M.JJ., Professor of Pathology in 
the American Veterinary College, New York; etc., etc. 
Histology is the basis of the physician's art, as 
Anatomy is the foundation of the surgeon's science. 
Only by knowing the processes of life can we under- 
stand the changes of disease and the action of 
remedies; as the architect must know his building 
materials, so must the practitioner of medicine know 
the intimate structure of the body. To present this 
knowledge in an accessible and simple form has 
been the author's task. Second edition revised. 
Cloth, size 5 J-2 x 8, 152 pages, 68 illustrations. . . 1 00 

ORES SWELL. " The Bovine Prescriber." For the use 

of Veterinarians and Veterinary Students. Second 
edition i-evised and enlarged, by James B. and Albert 
Gresswell, M.R.C.V.S. Cloth, size, 5x7 1-2, 102 
pages 75 

— "The Equine Hospital Prescriber." For the use of Veter- 

inary Practitioners and Students. Third edition re- 
vised and enlarged, by Drs. James B. and Albert 
Gresswell, M.R.C.V.S. Cloth, size 5x7 1-2, 165 
pages 75 

— "Diseases and Disorders of the Horse." A Treatise on 

Equine Medicine and Surgery, being a contribution to 
the science of comparative pathology. By Albert, 
Jas. B. and Geo. Gi'^sswell. Cloth, size 5 3-4 x 8 3 4, 
227 pages, illustrated 1 75 

— Manual of "The Theory and Practice of Equine Medicine." 

By James B. Gresswell, F.R.C.V.S., and Albert 
Gresswell, M.R.C.V.S. Second edition revised. 
Cloth, size 5 1-4x7 1-2, 539 pages 2 75 

— (t) "Veterinary Pliarniacopieia and Manual of Comparative 

Therapy." By George and Charles Gresswell, with 
descriptions and physiological actions of medicines, 
by Albert Gre.«.=iwell. Second edition revised and 
enlarged. Cloth, 6x8 3-4, 457 pages 3 60 

HASSLOCH. " A Conipend of Veterinary Materia Medica 
and Therapeutics." By A. C. Hassloch, V.S., 
Lecturer on Materia Medica and Therapeutics, and 
Professor of Veterinary Dentistry at the New York 
College of Veterinarv Surgeons and School of Compa- 
rative Medicine, N. Y. Cloth, size 5 1-4x7 1-2, 225 
pages 150 

HEATLEY. " The Stock Owner's Guide." A handy Medi- 
cal Treatise for every man who owns an ox or cow. 
Bv George S. Heatley, M.R.C.V.S. Cloth, size 
5 1-4 X 8, 172 pages 1 25 



HI1.L. (f.)"Tlie Diseases of the Cat." By J. Woodroffe 
Hill, F.K.C.V.S. Cloth, size 6 1-4x7 1-2, l^S pases, 
lUusirated 1 25 

Written from the experience of raany years' prac- 
tice and close pathological research into the maladies 
to which our domesticated feline friends are liable— a 
subject which it must be admitted has not found the 
prominence in veterinary literature to which it is 
undoubtedly entitled. 

— "The Management and Diseases of the Doff ' Bv J 

Woodroffe Hill, F.R.C.V.S. Cloth, size 5 x 7 1-2* 
extra fully illustrated. 

HINEBAUCH. "Veterinary Dental Surgery." By T. D 

Hinebauch, M.S.V.S. For the use of Students, Prac" 
titioners and Stockmen. Cloth, size 5 1-4x8 256 
pages, illustrated '.2 uu 

HO ABE. (•)««! Manual of Veterinary Therapeutics and 
Pharmacology." By E. Wallis Hoare. F.K.C.V b 
Cloth, size 5 1-4x7 1-4, xxvi plus 78u pages 4 75 

HOBDAY, (t)" The Castration of Cryptorchid Horses and 
the Oyariotomy of Troublesome Mares." By 

Frederick T G. Hobday. F.K.C.V.S. Cloth, sizi 
6 d-4 X 8 3-4, It 6 pages, 34 illustrations 1 75 

HUNTING. (t) The Art of Horse-shoeiJig. A manual 
tor Horseshoers. By William Hunting, F R C V S 
ex-President of the Royal College of Veterinary Sur- 
geons. One of the most up-to-date, concise books of 
Its kind in the English language. Cloth, size 6x9 1-4. 
126 pages, 96 illustrations 1 00 

JENKINS. {*) "Anatomical and Physiological Model of 
tlie tow." Half hfe size. Composed of superposed 
plates, colored to nature, showing internal organs 
muscles, skeleton, etc., mounted on strong boards' 
. with explanatory text. Size of Model ooened' 
10 ft. X 3 ft., closed 3 ft. x IJ ft 12 06 

— *' Anatomical and Physiological Model of the Hor«e " 

Half life size. Size of Model 38 x 41 in... . 12 (Kl 

These models may also be obtained in smaller 

sizes together with Models of the Dog, Sheep and 

JONES n*'The Surgical Anatomy of the Horse." 

By Jno. T. Share Jones, M.R C.V.S. Part I. To be 
completed in four parts. Each part— paper, $4 25- 
cloth, $0.00. Subscriptions for the four parts, pay- 
able in advance, paper, $15.00; cloth, $17.50. 



KOBERT. "Practical Toxicology for Physicians and 
Students " By Professor Dr. Eudolph Robert, 
Medical Director of Dr. Brehmer's Sanitarium lor 
Pulmonary Diseases at Goerbersdorf in Silesia (Prus- 
sia), late Director of the Pharmacological Institute, 
Dorpat, Kussia Translated and edited by L. H. 
Frledburg, Ph.D. Authorized Edition. Practical 
knowledge by means of tables which occupy little 
space, but show at a glance similarities and differ- 
ences between poisons of the same group. Also rules 
for the Spelling and Pronunciation of Chemical Terms, 
as adopted by the American Association for the Ad- 
vancement of Science. Cloth, 6 12 x 10, 201 pp.. 2 50 

KOCH. "Etiology of Tuberculosis." By Dr. R. Koch. 
Translated by T. Saure. Cloth, size 6x9 1-4, 97 
pages 1 00 

LAMBERT. "The «erm Theory of Disease." 

Bearing upon the health and welfare of man and the 
domesticated animals. By James Lambert, F.K..C.V.S. 
Paper, size 5 1-4x8 1-4, 26 pages, illustrated 25 

LAW. "Farmers' Teterinary Adviser." A Guide to the 
Prevention and Treatment of Disease in Domestic 
Animals. By Prof. James Law. Cloth, size 
5 1-4x7 1-2, illustrated 3 00 

LIAUTABD. (t)" Animal Castration." A concise and 
practical Treatise on the Castration of the Domestic 
Animals. The only work on the subject in the 
English language. By Alexander Liautard, M.D.,V.S. 
Having a fine portrait of the author. Tenth edition 
revised and enlarged. Cloth, size 6 1-4x7 1-2, 165 
pages, 45 illustrations 2 00 

. . . The most complete and comprehensive work on the 
subject in English veterinary literature.— American Agri- 
culturist. 

— "Cadiot's Exercises in Equine Surgery." Translated by 

Prof. Bitting and edited by Dr. Liautard. 
See " Cadiot." 

— " A Treatise on Surgical Therapeutics of the Domestic 

Animals." By Prof. Dr. P. J. Cadiot and J. Almy. 
Translated by JProf. Liautard. See '• Cadiot." 

— " How to Tell the Age of the Domestic Animal." By 

Dr. A. Liautard, M.D., V.S. Standard work upon 
this subject, concise, helpful and containing many 
illustrations. Cloth, size 5x7 1-2, 35 pages, 42 
illustrations 50 

— "Lameness of Horses and Diseases of the Locomotory 

Apparatus." By A. Liautar.l, M.D.,V.S. This work 
is the result of Dr. Liautard's many years of experi- 
ence. Cloth, size 5 1-4 X 7 1-2, 314 pages 2 69 



LIAUTARD (continued), 

— (*)** Manual of Operative Veterinary Surg-ery " By A. 

Liiautard, M.D., V.M. Engaged for years in the work 
of teaching this special department of veterinary 
medicine, and having abundant opportunities of 
realizing the difficulties which the student who 
earnestly strives to peifect himself in his calling is 
obliged to encounter, the author formed the deter- 
mination to facilitate his acquisition of knowledge, 
and began the accumulation of material by the com- 
pilation of data and arrangement of memorandum, 
with the recorded notes of his own experience, the 
fruit of a long and extended practice and a careful 
study of the various authorities who have illustrated 
and organized veterinary literature. Revised edition, 
with complete index. Cloth, size 6 1-4 x 9, xxx and 803 
pages, 563 illustrations 5 qo 

— "Pellerin's Median Neurotomy in the Treatment of 

Chronic Tendinitis and Perlostosis of the Fetlocli." 

Translated by Dr. A. Liautard. See " Pellerin." 

— "Vade Mecum of Equine Anatomy.'^ By A. Liautard, 

M.D.V.S. For the use of advanced stuients and 
veterinary surgeons. Third edition. Cloth, size 
5 X 7 1-2, 30 pages and 10 full page illustrations of 
the arteries 2 00 

— Zundel's " The Horse's Foot and Its Diseases." 

See " Zundel." 

LONG. "Book of the Pig." Its selection, Breeding, 
Feeding andManagement. Cloth 4,00 

LOWE. (t)" Breeding Racehorses by the Figure 
System." Compiled by the late C. Bruce Lowe 
Edited by William Allison, «' The Special Commis- 
sioner," London Sportsman, Hon. Secretary Sporting 
League, and Manager of the International Horse 
Agency and Exchange. With numerous fine illustra- 
tions of celebrated horses. Cloth, size 8 x 10, 262 
pages • 7 5Q 

LUDLOW. "Science in the Stable"; or How a Horse 
can be Kept in Perfect Health and be Used Without 
^ Shoes, in Harness or under the Saddle. With the 
Reason Why, Second Edition. By Jacob R. Ludlow 
M.D. Late Staff Surgeon, U. S. Army. Paper, size 
4 1-2x5 3-4, 166 pages .... 50 

LUPTON. "Horses: Sound and Unsound," with 
Law relating to Sales and Warranty. By J Irvine 
Lupton, F.R.C.V S. Cloth, size fi 3-4 x 7 1-2, 217 
pages, 28 illustrations 1 25 



M'FADTEAN. (f) " Anatomy of the Horse." Second 
edition completely revised. A Dissection Guide. 
By John M'Fadyean, M.B., B.Sc, F.R.S.E. Cloth, 

size 6x834, 388 paj^es, illustrated 5 50 

This book is intended for Veterinary students, -and 
offers to them in its 48 full-page colored plates, 
54 illustrations and excellent text, a valuable and 
practical aid in the study of Veterinary Anatomy, 
especially in the dissecting room. 

— " Comparative Anatomy of the Domesticated Animals." 

By J. M'Fadyean. Profusely illustrated, and to be 

issued in two parts. 

Part I— Osteology, ready. Size 5 1-2x8 1-2, 166 

pages, 132 illustrations. Paper, 2 50; cloth 2 75 

(Part II in preparation.) 

MAGNEB. "Standard Horse and Stock Book." By 

i>. Magner. Comprising over 1,000 pages, illustrated 
with 1756 engravings. Leather binding 6 (0 

MILLS. "How to Keep a Dog in the City.'' By 

Wesley Mills, M.D., D.V.S. It tells how to choose, 
manage, house, feed, educate the pup, how to keep him 
clean and teach him cleanliness. Paper, size 5x7 1-2, 
4<) pages 25 

MOHLEli. "Handbook of Meat Inspection." By Robert 
Ostertag, M.D. Translated by Earley Vernon 
Wilcox, A.M., Ph.D. With an introduction by 
John R. Mohler, V.M.D., A M. See " Ostertag." 

MOLLER — DOLLAR. (f) " Kej?ional Veterinary 

Surgery." See " Dollar." 

MOSSELMAM-LIEKAUX. *' Manual of Veterinary 
Microbiology." By Professors Mosselman and 
Lienaux, Nat. Veterinary College, Cureghem, Belgium. 
Translated and edited by R. R. Dinwiddle, Professor 
of Veterinary Science, College of Agriculture, Arkansas 
State University. Cloth, size 5 12x8, 342 pages, 
illustrated 2 00 

3IOUSSV. n" Diseases of Cattle, Sheep, Goats and 
Swine." See'' Dollar." 

NEUMANN. (*)"A Treatise on Parasites and Parasitic 
Diseases of the Domesticated Animals." A work 
to which the students of human or veterinary medi- 
cine, the sanitarian, agriculturist or breeder or rearer 
of animals, may refer for full information, regarding 
the external and internal Parasites — vegetable and 
animal — which attack various species of Domestic 
Animals. A Treatise by L. G. Neumann, Professor 
at the National Veterinary School of Toulouse. 
Translated and edited by Geo. Fleming, C.B., LL.D.. 
F.R C.V.S. Second edition, revised and edited by 
James Macqueen, F.R.C.V.S., Professor at the Royal 
Veterinary College, London. Cloth, size 6 S-i x 10, 
xvi -1- 698 pages, 365 illustrations 6 75 



NOCARD. " The Animal Tubei-culoses, and their Relation 
to lluniau Tuberculosis." By Ed. Nocard, Prof, ot the 
Alfort Veterinary College. Translated by H. Scurfield, 
M.D. Ed., Ph. Ciinib. Cloth, 5x7 1-2, 143 pages.. 1 00 
Perhap.s the chief interest to doctors of human 
meilicine in Professor Nocard's book lies in the 
demonstration of the small part played by heredity, 
and the great part played by contagion in the propa- 
gation of bovine tuberculosis. 

NUNN. (*)" Veterinary Toxicology." By Joshua A. Nunn, 
F.R.C.V.S. The study of toxicology is intimately 
blended with other biological sciences, particularly 
physiology and chemistry, both of which it on many 
occasions overlaps. A carefully arranged and com- 
plete index is given in the front of the volume. 
Cloth, size Gx 8 3-4, vii + 191 pages 1 75 

OSTERTAG. (*)" Handbook of Meat Inspection." By 

Robert Ostertag, M D. Authorized Translation by 
Earley Vernon Wilcox, A.M., Ph.D. With an intro- 
duction by John E. Mohler, V.M.D., A.M. The work 
is exhaustive and authorative and has at once become 
the standard authority upon the subject Second 
edition, i-evised. Cloth, size 6 3-4 x 9 3-4, 920 pages, 
260 illustrations and 1 colored plate 7 50 

PALLIN. (*) " A Treatise on Epizootic Lyniphang'itis." By 

• Capt. W. A. Pallin, F.R,O.V.S. In this work the 
author has endeavored to combine his own experience 
with that of other writers and .so attempts to give a 
clear and complete account of a subject about which 
there Ih little at present in English veterinary litera- 
ture. Cloth, size 5 3-4 x 8 1-2, 90 pages, with 17 fine 
full page illustrations 1 25 

PEGLER. " Uoat Keeping for Amateurs." Paper, 5x7|, 
77 pages, illustrated 5o 

PELLERim "Median Neurotomy in the Treatment 
of Chronic Tendinitis and Peribstosis of the Fetlock." 

By C. Pellerin, late repetitor of Clinic and Surgery to 
the Alfort Veterinary School. Translated, with Addi- 
tional Facts Relating to It, by Prof. A. Liautard, M.D., 
V.M. Having rendered good results when performed 
by himself, the author believes the operation, which 
consists in dividing the cubito-plantar nerve and in 
excising a portion of the peripherical end, the means 
of improving the conditions, and consequently the 
values of many apparently doomed animals. Agricul- 
ture in particular will be benefited. 

The work is divi(le<i in'o iwo parts. The first covers 
the study of Median Neurotomy itself; the second, 
the exact relations of the facts as observed by the 
author. Boards, 6x9 1-2, 61 pages, illustrated. .1 GO 



PETERS. " A Tuberculous Herd-Test nith Tuber- 
culin." By Austin Peters, M. R. C. V. S., Chief 
Inspector of Cattle for tiie New Yov]s. State Board of 
Health during the winter of l>i92-93. Pamphlet 25 

REYNOLDS. "An Essay on the Breeding and manage- 
ment of Drauglit Horses." By R. y. Reynolds, 
M.R.C.V.S. Cloth, size 5 1-2x8 3 4, lo4 pages. .1 4U 

ROBERGE. "The Foot of the Horse," or Lameness 
and all Diseases of the Feet traced to an Unbalanced 
Foot Bone, prevented or cured by balancing the foot. 
By David Roberge. Cloth, size 6x9 1-4, 308 pages, 
H I ustrated " 6 00 

SESSIONS. (*)" Cattle Tuberculosis," a Practical Guide to 
the Agriculturist and Inspector. Bv Harold Sessions, 
F.R,C. V.S., etc. Second edition. Size 5x7 1-4, vi + 
120 pages 1 00 

The subject can be understood by those who have 
to deal pd,rticularly with it, yet who, perhaps, have 
not had the necessary training to appreciate technical 
phraseology. 

SEWELIj. "The Examination of Horses as to Sound- 
ness and Selection as to Purchase." By Edward 
Sewell. M. R.C. V.S. Paper, size 51-2x8 1-2, 86 pages, 
illustrated with 8 plates in color 1 50 

It is a great advantage to the business man to 

know something of the elements of law, and nobody 
ought either to buy or own a horse who does not know 
something about the animal. That sompthiug this book 
gives, and gives in a thoroughly excellent way 

SMITH. (•)" A Manual of Veterinary Physiology." By 

Vet. Capt. F. Smith, C.M.S , M R.C.V S., Examiner in 
Physiology, Royal College of Veterinary Surgeons, 
author of " A Manual of Veterinary Hygiene." A 
completely revised and enlarged edition just pub- 
lished. Cloth, 6x8 3-4, 720 pp, 102 illust'ns 4 25 

The whole book has been carefully revised and 
brought up to date. All the important advances of the 
last few years have been embodied. The chapter on 
the nervous system has been specially revised by Prof. 
Sherrington, whose remarkable work on the "spinal 
dog " has been introduced. A special point is made 
of the bearing of physiology on pathology, and the 
utilization of physiology to the better understanding of 
every-day pi'actice. The book is written by a veterin- 
ary surgeon for veterinary practitioners and students, 
and is the only work in the English language which 
can claim to be purely veterinary. 
— (*)" Manual of Veterinary Hygiene." Third edition rpvised. 
Cloth, size 5 1-4x7 1-2, xx -f 1036 pages, with 255 
illustrations 4 75 

Recognizing the rapid advance and extended field 
of the subject since the previous issue, the author 
has entirely re-written the work and enlarged its 
scope, whieh is brought thoroughly up to date. Con- 
tains over 500 more pages than the second edition. 



STBANGEWAT. (f)" Veterinary Anatomy." Edited by 
I. Vaughan, F.L.S., M R.G V.S. New edition revised. 
Cloth, size 6 1-4x9 1-2, 625 pages, 224 illus 5 00 

SUSSDORF. "Six Large Colored Wall Diagrams." By 

Prof. Sussdorf, M.U. (of Gottingeii). Text translated 
by Prof. W. Owen Williams, of the New Veterinary 
College, Edinburgh. Size, 44 inches by 30 inches. 

1.— Horse. 4.— Ox. 

2. - Mare. 5— Boar and Sow. 

3.— Cow. 6.— Dog and Bitch. 

The above are printed in eight or nine colors. 
Showing the position of the viscera in the large 
cavities of the body. 

Price, unmounted 1 75 each 

" mounted on linen, with roller 3 50 " 

THOMPSON, if) "Elementary Lectures on Veterinary 
Science." For agricultural student?, farmers and 
stocli keepers. By Henry Thompson, M. B.C. V.S. , 
lecturer on Veterinary Science at the Aspatria Agri- 
cultural College. England. It is complete yet concise 
and an up-to-date book. Cloth, 397 pp., 51 illus.. 3 75 

VAN MATER, "A Text Book of Veterinary Oph- 
thalmology." By George G. Van Mater, M.D., 
D.V.S., Professor of Ophthalmology in the American 
Veterinary College ; Oculist and Aurist to St. Martha's 
Sanitarium and Dispensary; Consulting Eye and Ear 
Surgeon to the Twenty-sixth Ward Di.spensary ; Eye 
and Ear Surgeon, Brooklyn Eastern District Dispen- 
sary, etc. Illustrated by one chromo lithograph plate 
and 71 engravings. Cloth, 6x9 1-4, 151 pages.. .3 00 

. . . We intend to adopt this valuable work as a text 
book.— E. J. Creely, D.V.S., Dean of the San Francisco 
Veterinary College. 

VETERINARY DIAGRAMS in Tabular Form. 
Size, 28| in. x 2'2 inches. Price per set of five. . . 4 00 

Mounted and folded in case 7 CO 

Mounted on roller and varnished .10 00 

No. 1. "The External Form and Elementary Ana- 
tomy of tlie Horse." Eight colored illustrations — 
1. External regions ; 2. Skeleton ; 3. Muscles (Superior 
Layer); 4. Muscles (Deep Layer); 5. Respiratory Ap- 
paratus ; 6. Digestive Apparatus ; 7. Circulatory Ap- 
paratus : 8. Nerve Apparatus ; with description 1 25 

Mounted on roller and varnished 2 25 

No. 2. " The Age of Domestic Animals." Forty-two 
figures illustrating the structure of the teeth, indicat- 
ing the Age of the Horse, Ox, Sheep, and Dog, with 

full description 75 

Mounted on roller and varnished 2 00 



^^■■ilB 



VETERINARY DIAGRAMS fcontinued). 

No. 3. "The Unsoundness and Defects of the Horse." 

Fifty figures illussLniting — 1. The Defecte of Confor- 
mation ; 2. Defects of Position ; 3. Infirmities or Signs 
of Disease ; 4. Unsoundnesses ; 5. Defects of the Foot ; 

with full description 75 

Mounted on roller and varnished 2 00 

No. 4. "The Shoeing of the Horse, Mule and Ox." 

Fifty figures descriptive of the Anatomy and Physio- 
logy of the Foot and of Horse-shoeing 75 

Mounted on roller and varnished 2 00 

No. 5. "The Elementary Anatomy, Points, and But- 
cher's Joints of the Ox." Ten colored illustrations 
— 1. Skeleton; 2. Nervous System; 3. Digestive 
System (Right Side) ; 4. Respiratory System ; 5. Points 
of a Fat Ox ; 6. Muscular System ; 7. Vascular System ; 
8. Digestive System (Left Side) ; 9. Butcher's Sections 
of a Calf ; 10. Butcher's Sections of an Ox ; with full 

d esoription ...1 25 

Mounted on roller and varnished 2 25 

If ALLEY. "A Practical Guide to Meat Inspection," By 

Thomas Walley, M.R.C.V.S., late principal of the 
Edinburgh Royal (Dick) Veterinary College; Pro- 
fessor of Veterinary Medicine and Surgery, etc. 
Fourth Edition, thoroughly revised and enlarged 
hy Stewart Stockman, M.R.C.V.S., Professor of 
Pathology, Lecturer on Hygiene and Meat Inspection 
at Dick Veterinary College, Edinburgh. Cloth, size 
5 1-2 5 8 1-4, with 45 colored illus., 295 pages 3 00 

An experience of over 30 years in his profession 
and a long official connection (some sixteen years) 
with Edinburgh Abattoirs have enabled the author to 
gather a large store of information on the subject, 
which he has embodied in his book. 

While Dr. Stockman is indeed indebted to the 
old for much useful information, this up-to- 
date work will hardly be recognized as the old 
" Walley's Meat Inspection." 

iriLCOX. (*)*' Handbook of Meat Inspection." By Robert 
Ostel-tag, M.D. See " Ostertag." 

IFILLIAMS. "Principles and Practice of Veterinarj 
Medicine." Author's edition, entirely revised and 
illu'jf rated with numerous plain and colored plates. 
Bv W. Williams, M.R.G.V.S. Cloth, size 5 3-4x8 3-4, 
865 pages 7 50 

— " Principles and Practice of Veterinary Surgery." 

Author's edition, entirely revised and illustrated 
with numerous plain and colored plates. By W 
Williams, M.R.G.V.S. Cloth, size 6 1-2x9 1-4, 7.% 
pages 7 50 



THE MOST COMPLETE, PROGRESSIVE AND 
SCIENTIFIC BOOK ON THE SUBJECT IN 
THE ENGLISH LANGUAGE 

(•) WINSL O IF. "Veterinary Materia Medica and Tlierapeu- 
tics." By Kenelm Winslow. B.A.S., M.D.V., M.D., 
(Harv.) ; foimeily Assistant Profe.ssor of Therapeutics 
in the Veterinary School of Harvard University ; 
Fellow of tite Massachusetts Medical Society ; Surgeon 
to the Newton Hospital, etc. 

Fifth Edition, Revised and Enlarged 

Cloth, size 6 1-4 x 9 1-4, x + 804 pages 6 00 

In accordance with the hitherto expressed desire of the author and 
publishers to keep this work at its highest point of efficiency, it has 
been deemed incumbent upon them to again present a new and revised 
edition— the fourth edition of 1906 being exhausted. 

In the present revision the most notable feature is the substitution 
of a section on Condensed Treatment of Diseases of the Domestic 
Animals for the Index of Diseases and Remedial Measures, at the end 
of the book. In the preparation of this matter, very considerable time 
and pains have been taken to render this section a reflection and epi- 
tome of all that is most modern and progressive in veterinary thera- 
peutics. 

Special indications for treatment, including drugs and therapeutic 
agents othei- than drugs, in the different phases and stages of all the 
important diseases of the domestic animals are to be found. These dis- 
eases embrace not only medical and surgical disorders, but those of the 
EYK, SKIN and EAR. If the attempt has been in any degree successful, 
this new edition to the book should prove one of its most valuable 
features both to practitioners and students. 

Moreover, many changes have been made in the text in consonance 
with recent ad\'ance8 in our knowledge of the action of drugs. 



WYMAN. (*)" Bovine Obstetrics." By M. G. De Bruin. 
Translated by W. E. A. Wyman, M.D.V.,V.S. 
See also " De Bruin." 

— (*)" Catechism of the Principles of Veterinary Surgery." 

Bv W. E. A. Wyman, M.D.V.,V.S. Cloth, size 6x9, 
321 pages 3 50 

Concerning this new tvork attention is called to tlie 
following Iioints: 

1.— It discusses the sub.iect upon the basis of veterinary investigations. 

2.— It does away with works on human pathology, histology, etc. 

3.— It explains each question thoroughly both from a scientific as well 

as a practical point of view. 
4.— It is writen by one knowing the needs of the student. 
5.— It" deals exhaustively with a chapter on tumors, heretofore utterly 

neglected in veterinary pathology. 
6.— The only work in English specializing the subject. 
7.— The only work thoroughly taking into consideration American as 

well as European investigations. 
8.— Offering practical hints which have not appeared in print, the 

result of large city and country practice. 



WYMAN (Continued) 



— it/' The Clinical Diagnosis of Lameness in the Horse." 

By W. E. A. Wynian, D.V.S., formerly Professor of 
Veterinary Science, Clemson A. & M. College, and 
Veterinarian to the South Carolina Experiment 
Station. Cloth, size 6x9 1-2, 182 pp., 32 illus. . . .2 50 



— (+)«*Tibio-peroneal Neurectomy for the Belief of Spavin 
Lameness." By W. E. A. Wyman, M.D.V., V.S. 

Boards, size 6 x 9, 30 pages, illustrated 50 

Anyone wanting to perform this operation should procure 
this little treatise ; he will find it of considerable help.— The 
Veterinary Journal. 



ZUILL. "Typhoid Fever; or Contagious Inflaenia 
in the Horse." By Prof. W. L. Zuill, M.D.,D.V.S. 

Pamphlet, size 6x9 1-4, 29 pages 25 



ZUNDEL. "The Horse's Foot and Its Diseases." By 

A. Zundel, Principal Veterinarian of Alsace Lorraine. 
Translated by Dr. A. Liautard, V.S. Cloth, size 
5x7 3-4, 248 pages, illustrated 2 00 



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